Cyano Type Blue Printing
Cyano Type Blue Printing
Cyano Type Blue Printing
Cyanotype is a photographic printing process that produces a cyan-blue print. Engineers used the process well
into the 20th century as a simple and low-cost process to produce copies of drawings, referred to as blueprints.
Invented by Sir John Herschel in 1841, this simple process produces a continuous tone
image of Prussian Blue using a sensitizing solution of ferric ammonium citrate and
potassium ferricyanide. These iron salts, when exposed to natural or artificial ultraviolet
light, are reduced to their ferrous state, producing a high contrast blue image when
oxidised. The process was eminently suited to its traditional role in reproducing technical
drawings, its most common use in engineering and architecture until the advent of modern
photocopiers. However, it was a versatile process, and was used throughout the 19th
century from Anna Atkins’ photograms of plants and seaweed for her books on botany
(1843–55) to Henri LeSecq’s still life studies of the 1850s. Photographers at the end of the century used
cyanotype paper for proofing negatives.
Procedure:
1. Immerse pieces of bond paper one by one in the sensitizing solution and keep them immersed for 4-5 minutes.
2. Remove the wet pieces of paper and place them between sheets of filter paper. This should be done as quickly
as possible and in a partially closed locker. Dry it for 10-15 minutes.
3. After the paper has dried, place an opaque object on top of the sensitizing paper, compress it between sheets of
glass and expose to sunlight for 4-6 minutes.
4. Make 3-4 exposures, varying the time of exposure to optimize the best condition.
5. After the exposure, dip the paper into 0.1M ferric cyanide. It is important that the paper is immersed all at once,
otherwise lines will appear on the blue field of the paper.
6. Remove the paper and dip it in 0.3M potassium dichromate solution for one minute. Afterwards, wash the paper
first with 0.1M HCl and then tap water and dry.
7. Paste all the images in your lab notebook with their exposure times.
Amount of Calcium in Milk
Calcium is one of the minerals that the body needs daily. Milk and milk products have the best
reserves of calcium.
Interestingly, calcium seems to come in fifth place wherever it goes: it is the fifth most abundant
element by mass in the Earth's crust (after oxygen, silicon, aluminum and iron); the fifth most
abundant dissolved ion in seawater (after sodium, chloride, magnesium and sulfate); and the fifth
most abundant element in the human body (after oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen). It is,
however, the most abundant metallic element in the human body, 99 percent of which can be found in
our bones and teeth. Today you will find out the amount of calcium in milk by doing a complexometric
titration with ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA-sodium salt).
Procedure
1. Take 50 mL of Mg-EDTA solution in a 250 mL beaker. The Mg-EDTA solution contains 0.74 g
of EDTA and 0.49 g of MgSO4 in 100 mL of water.
2. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator and 0.1 M NaOH solution dropwise to the beaker till
it becomes pink. Count the number of drops and discard this solution in chemical waste
bucket.
3. Take again 50 mL of Mg-EDTA solution in a 250 mL beaker and add the number of drops of
0.1 M NaOH solution and make up the total final volume to 95 mL using distilled water.
4. Add 2 mL of pH 10 buffer solution and 8 drops of eriochrome black-T indicator to the above
solution. At this stage there are two possibilities.
4.1 If the solution is red in color, add 0.01M EDTA solution dropwise until the solution turns
blue.
4.2 If the solution is blue in color add 0.01M MgSO 4 solution dropwise until the solution turns
red then add 0.01M EDTA solution dropwise until the solution turns blue again.
Aldol condensation is an important route of organic synthesis because it provides an efficient way to
form carbon-carbon bond. In this condensation, an enol or enolate ion reacts with a carbonyl
compound to from a β-hydroxy ketone or β-hydroxy aldehyde, which is followed by dehydration. The
reaction is used to manufacture solvents such as isophorone, used in printing inks, lacquers,
adhesives and many other products. It is also used in the manufacture of α, β- unsaturated ketones
known as chalcones. This condensation is generally used to create plasticizers which ae used to
convert rigid plastic polyvinyl chloride into a soft, flexible elastic material. In today’s experiment, you
will utilize this reaction to prepare dibenzalacetone. It is a common ingredient in sunscreens since it
absorbs UV light. Dibenzalacetone was first prepared in 1881 by Claisen and Claparede. It is used as
ligand for making organometallic complexes which are used as catalysts in coupling reactions. For
example, Pd-DBA.
O O
C O NaOH + 2H2O
+
H
H 3C CH3
Procedure:
Recrystallization
1. Dissolve the crude product in 2 mL of ethyl acetate in a beaker and heat on water bath till you
get a clear solution.
2. Allow the solution to cool slowly to room temperature and then cool it in an ice bath. Pure
dibenzalacetone crystallizes.
3. Filter the pure product and allow to dry. Weigh the product and report the percentage yield.
4. Determine the melting point of the product.
Synthesis of Aspirin
Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a synthetic organic derived from salicylic acid. Salicylic acid is a natural product
found in the bark of the willow tree and was used by the ancient Greeks and Native Americans, among others,
to counter fever and pain. However, salicylic acid is bitter and irritates the stomach. In a Bayer laboratory in
Wuppertal, Germany, young scientist Dr. Felix Hoffmann was the first to succeed in synthesizing a chemically
pure and stable form of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), which becomes the active ingredient in Aspirin. Aspirin is the
most frequently sold pain reliever in the world, has been the subject of a Nobel prize (1982), and has been
termed the ‘wonder drug’ of the century. It is singlehandedly responsible for the foundation and success of
Bayer Pharmaceuticals (2019 revenue: 49 billion US dollars).Acetylation of Salicylic Acid
O O
O
O O catalyst C
C OH +
OH + H 3C OH
H 3C O CH3
OH O
Salicylic Acid Acetic Anhydride C
H 3C O
Procedure:
1. Take a petri dish or watch glass and weigh x g of salicylic acid (Mol. Wt. 138.12 g/mol).
2. Transfer the weighed salicylic acid to a dry 150 mL conical flask.
3. Add 2.7 equivalents of acetic anhydride (Mol. Wt. 102.08 g/mol; Density 1.08 g/mL) using a measuring
cylinder to the salicylic acid. Now add 5-6 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid and stir until all salicylic
acid is dissolved.
4. Leave the reaction mixture undisturbed for 15-20 minutes.
5. Add 50 mL of water to the flask and swirl for two minutes and filter.
6. Collect the solid from the filter paper.
Recrystallization
1. Dissolve the crude product in 7 mL of ethanol in a beaker and add 15 mL of distilled water. Heat on
water bath till you get a clear solution.
2. Allow the solution to cool in an ice bath without disturbing. Pure acetylsalicylic acid crystallizes.
3. Filter the pure product and dry it by placing in between sheets of filter paper. Report the percentage
yield.
4. Dissolve a few crystals of the dry compound in 0.5 mL methanol and add 2 drops of FeCl3 solution.
Note the color change. Repeat the above test with similar amount of salicylic acid and note the color
change.
5. Determine the melting point of acetylsalicylic acid.
6. Put the aspirin in a paper sachet, write your Roll Number on it and submit the sample in the box labeled
‘Product’.
Estimation of Iodine in iodized common salt using iodometry
Iodine is an essential element for life and one of the heaviest elements required by living
organisms. However, around one third of the world’s population
lives in areas of iodine deficiency. The practice of adding iodine to
salt is a safe, easy and effective way of overcoming iodine
deficiency in our diet. Globally two chemical forms of iodine are
used for iodization; Iodates (IO3-) and Iodides (I-). The iodides
degrade more readily in presence of impurities, exposure to
sunlight, moisture and exposure to heat, whereas the iodates
remain stable under extremes of weather and handling. USA uses
potassium iodide (77 mg/Kg) while Germany and India use
potassium iodate (25-20 mg/Kg) for iodine fortification. Today you will use iodometry to
estimate the amount of iodine in a salt sample.
Procedure:
Rapid test to determine the nature of iodizing reagent
Take a pinch of common salt on a watch glass and divide into two parts:
CAUTION: To ensure that you have obtained the true end point, stir the flask for 20 seconds and
then wait for 20 seconds to make sure that the purple colour does not reappear.
Procedure:
Procedure:
In today’s experiment you will study the reaction between potassium permanganate and dilute oxalic acid at
different temperatures. The permanganate ion MnO4- reduces to MnO2 changing the colour from bright
purple/pink to yellow/brown. You will find the rate constant for this reaction at five different temperatures and
then determine the activation energy for the reaction.
Procedure:
1. Using burettes, place 20 mL oxalic acid (0.25 M) in a conical flask and 10 mL KMnO4 (approximately
0.01 M) in a test tube. The exact concentration of KMnO4 should be noted from the blackboard.
2. Place both the vessels in a water bath to equilibrate for at least 5 minutes.
3. Mix the reactants in the conical flask and start the stop watch.
4. Swirl the reaction mixture regularly without taking it out of the water bath.
5. Record the time it takes for the mixture to turn yellow/brown.
6. Repeat the procedure with another sample at this temperature.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 for three other temperatures.
8. For the reading at 0 degree Celsius, time taken is 2215 seconds. Use this information as the fifth
temperature reading in your experiment.
9. Determine the activation energy by plotting ln k Vs 1/T. (Temperature in degree kelvin)
1. Take 80 mL of 0.01M EDTA solution in a 250/500 ml plastic beaker and fill it in a clean burette
up to the mark.
2. Weigh accurately 0.23 g of [Ni(NH3)6]Cl2 complex and transfer this to a 100 mL volumetric flask.
Now add 50 mL of 1 N H2SO4 to dissolve it and makeup the solution to the mark with distilled
water.
3. Pipette out 10 mL of the complex solution in a 250 mL conical flask and dilute it with 15 mL of
distilled water.
4. Add 2-3 drops of murexide indicator and 5 mL NH4Cl solution (0.5M) to the conical flask. Now
add ammonia solution (7-10 drops) to maintain a pH 7 (light green colour of the solution).
5. Titrate it with EDTA solution till the endpoint is near, add 3ml of ammonia solution and continue
the titration till the endpoint (bluish violet colour appears).
6. Repeat the titration and get concordant values.
7. Calculate the amount of Ni present in the complex.
8. Put the remaining Ni complex, [Ni(NH3)6]Cl2, in a paper sachet, write your Roll Number on it and
submit the sample in the box labelled ‘Product’.
1. Several solutions (of NiCl2) of known concentration and one solution of unknown concentration
will be provided to you.
2. Measure absorbance of all the solutions at 395 nm using a UV-Visible spectrophotometer.
3. Plot absorbance versus mg/mL of nickel. Determine the concentration of nickel present in the
unknown solution in g/L.
Extraction and Identification of DNA
DNA or Deoxyribonucleic acid contains all genetic information necessary for growth, functioning and
reproduction of almost all living organisms. DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around
each other to form a double helix. The chemical and molecular structure of the DNA is illustrated below.
Chromosomal DNA, exists in the well known X shape and is bound by proteins into a supercoil. DNA was first
isolated by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. Its molecular structure was first identified by James Watson and
Francis Crick at the Cavendish Laboratory within the University of Cambridge in 1953. In 1960, Nirenberg and
Har Gobind Khorana decoded DNA. Today you will extract DNA from peas and then identify it using UV-Visible
spectroscopy and a chemical test.
Procedure:
1. Take 10 mL of the extract in a boiling tube and add 1.5 mL of the SDS solution and gently swirl. Let the
mixture stand for 10 minutes in ice.
2. Add 5-6 drops of papain extract to the mixture and stir gently.
3. Now hold the test tube at an angle and pour very slowly 24 mL of ice cold ethanol down the wall of the
test tube so that it forms a layer above the extract layer.
4. Some stringy white substance comes in the alcohol layer. This is DNA.
5. Use a hooked glass rod and place it such that its end is just below
the alcohol layer. Now try to spool the DNA out of the tube.
Identification of DNA
Diphenylamine Test
UV-Vis Absorption
1. Dissolve DNA in 2-3 mL of TE buffer solution and determine the ratio of absorption at 260 & 280 nm.