المحاضرة الاولي 3كيمياء حيوي

Course: .
Physiology
physiology: It is the science which
study the all biological functions of
living organisms and their parts.
Transport systems
Cells utilise two processes to move substance in and out of

the cell: the passive and active transport systems. When
molecules pass in and out of a cell membrane without the
use of cellular energy, it is called passive transport system.
This includes
1- Simple diffusion.
2- Facilitated diffusion.
3- Osmosis.
4- Filtration.
On the other hand, the active transport system requires
energy to move substances in and out of a cell. The
active transport systems include:
1- Active transport with the utilization of adenosine
triphosphate(ATP).
2- Endocytosis.
3- Exocytosis.
passive transport systems.
1- Simple diffusion
The term simple diffusion refers to a process whereby a

substance passes through a membrane without the aid of
an intermediary such as an integral membrane protein.
Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ethanol and urea are
examples of molecules that readily cross cell membranes
by simple diffusion. They pass either directly through the
lipid bilayer or through pores created by certain integral
membrane .
The rate of diffusion depends on several factors:
1- Gases diffuse rapidly and liquids diffuse more slowly

2- In high temperature the rate of diffusion is much faster
3- Smaller molecules such as glycerol diffuse much faster than
larger molecules like fatty acids.
4-The surface area of the cell membrane over which the molecule
can work.
5- The solubility of the molecule.
6-The concentration gradient.
2 - Facilitated diffusion
Facilitated diffusion (facilitated transport) is a process of

passive transport (diffusion) via which molecules diffuse
across cell membranes, with the help of transport proteins.
Larger molecules, such as amino acids, cannot pass the cell
membrane and therefore they use a process called facilitated
diffusion . No direct cellular energy is used in this process.
Glucose, sodium and chloride ions are just a few examples
of molecules and ions that must efficiently get across the
plasma of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
.
3- Osmosis.
Osmosis is a process whereby water moves from

an area of high volume to an area of low volume
through a selective permeable membrane .
Filtration - 4
Filtration is a process where small substances are forced

through a selective permeable membrane by means of
hydrostatic pressure. An example of filtration within the
human body is at the capillary end of the blood vessels. With
the aid of blood pressure, fluid and solutes are forced out of
the single layered cells of the capillaries into the interstitial
fluid space. Large molecules such as proteins and red blood
cells remain in the capillaries. Another example of filtration
that occurs in the human body takes place in the kidneys.
Blood pressure forces water and dissolved wastes products
such as urea and uric acid into the kidney tubules during the
formation of urine.
Active transport system
The main difference between the active and passive

transport systems is that the active transport system
utilises cellular energy to move substances through a
semi permeable membrane. The energy is obtained by
splitting ATP into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and
phosphate.
1- Active transport
An active process is one in which substances move against a
concentration gradient from an area of lower to higher
concentration. The cell must expend energy which is released
by splitting ATP into ADP and phosphate. ATP is a
compound made up of a base, a sugar and three phosphate
groups (triphosphate).These phosphate groups are held
together by high - energy bonds, which when broken release
a high level of energy. Once one of these phosphate bonds
has been broken and a phosphate group has been released,
that compound now has only two phosphate groups
(diphosphate) leaving a spare phosphate group, which in turn
will join up with another adenosine diphosphate group, so
forming another molecule of ATP (with energy stored in the
phosphate bonds), and the whole process continues.
In the human body, the four main active transport systems
considered when discussing cellular energy are:
1- The sodium- potassium pump: sodium and potassium
concentration gradients are generated to produce electrical
energy.
2- The calcium pump: calcium ions essential for muscle contraction
are transported into muscle cells.
3- The sodium- linked co transporter: glucose and amino acids are
actively transported into the cells and at the same time sodium
moves passively via the co transporter.
4- The hydrogen- linked co transporter: glucose is actively
transported into the cell and at the same time hydrogen ions
move into the cell via the co transporter.
The sodium-potassium pump system moves sodium and potassium ions against
large concentration gradients. It moves two potassium ions into the cell
where potassium levels are high, and pumps three sodium ions out of the cell and into
the extracellular fluid.
Calcium pumps are a family of ion transporters found in the cell membrane
of all animal cells. They are responsible for the active transport of calcium out
of the cell for the maintenance of the steep Ca2+ electrochemical gradient
across the cell membrane. The pump is found in the membrane of
the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In some cases, it is so plentiful that it may
make up 90% of the protein there. Powered by ATP, it pumps
calcium ions back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, reducing
the calcium level around the actin and myosin filaments and allowing
the muscle to relax
2- Endocytosis
Endocytosis is the process by which cells take in molecules

such as proteins from outside the cell by engulfing them
with their cell membrane. It is used by all cells of the body
because most substances important to them are polar and
consist of big molecules, and thus cannot pass through the
hydrophobic plasma membrane. During endocytosis only a
small section of the cell membrane plays a part to form a
fold and a new intracellular pod is formed containing the
substance.
There are three types endocytosis:
1- Pinocytosis (‘ cell drinking’ ) . In pinocytosis the

molecule engulfed is relatively small , occurs in almost
all ells.
2- Phagocytosis ( ‘ cell eating ’ ) results in the ingestion of
particulate matter. e.g. bacteria) from the ECF,
neutrophils, macrophages).
3 - Receptor - mediated endocytosis . Involves specific

receptors that bind to large molecules in the
extracellular fluid. the substance bound to the receptor
is alled a ligand.
3 - Exocytosis
Exocytosis is a process for moving items from the cytoplasm of the

cell to the outside. The intracellular vesicle with its ingested
substances fuses with the cell membrane to get rid of the unwanted
substance from the cell. This process is also utilised by nerve cells to
release chemical messengers into the synapse of a neuron. Gland cells
release proteins by exocytosis. Many cells in the body use exocytosis
to release enzymes or other proteins that act in other areas of the
body, or to release molecules that help cells communicate with one
another. For instance, clusters of α - and β - cells in the islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas secrete the hormones glucagon and
insulin, respectively. For instance, a neuron cell relays an electrical
pulse through the use of neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters are
stored in vesicles and lie next to the cytoplasmic face of the plasma
membrane

المحاضرة الاولي 3كيمياء حيوي

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Course: .

Cells utilise two processes to move substance in and out of

The term simple diffusion refers to a process whereby a

1- Gases diffuse rapidly and liquids diffuse more slowly

Facilitated diffusion (facilitated transport) is a process of

Osmosis is a process whereby water moves from

Filtration is a process where small substances are forced

The main difference between the active and passive

Endocytosis is the process by which cells take in molecules

1- Pinocytosis (‘ cell drinking’ ) . In pinocytosis the

3 - Receptor - mediated endocytosis . Involves specific

Exocytosis is a process for moving items from the cytoplasm of the

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