ZOO-211

Vector-borne Diseases
Module I: Introduction to Vectors and
Vector-borne diseases (VBDs):
• Vectors-definition,
• Types of vectors,
• Vector-borne diseases,
• Disease transmission-horizontal and vertical transmission of vectors,
• Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Diseases and control Strategies,
• Emerging and Reemerging Vector Borne diseases.
 Vector-borne Diseases
Key facts
• Vector-borne diseases account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases, causing
more than 700 000 deaths annually. They can be caused by either parasites, bacteria or
viruses.
• Malaria is a parasitic infection transmitted by Anopheline mosquitoes. It causes an
estimated 219 million cases globally, and results in more than 400,000 deaths every
year. Most of the deaths occur in children under the age of 5 years.
• Dengue is the most prevalent viral infection transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes. More
than 3.9 billion people in over 129 countries are at risk of contracting dengue, with an
estimated 96 million symptomatic cases and an estimated 40,000 deaths every year.
• Other viral diseases transmitted by vectors include chikungunya fever, Zika virus
fever, yellow fever, West Nile fever, Japanese encephalitis (all transmitted by
mosquitoes), tick-borne encephalitis (transmitted by ticks).
• Many of vector-borne diseases are preventable, through protective measures, and
community mobilisation.
 Vectors?
• A vector is defined as an organism that
transmits pathogens and parasites from one
infected individual (or animal) to another,
thereby causing disease.
• Vectors are living organisms that can transmit
infectious pathogens between humans, or
from animals to humans.
• Many of these vectors are bloodsucking
insects, which ingest disease-producing
microorganisms during a blood meal from an
infected host (human or animal) and later
transmit it into a new host, after the pathogen
has replicated.
• Often, once a vector becomes infectious, they
are capable of transmitting the pathogen for
the rest of their life during each subsequent
 Types of Vectors

1. Biological Vectors
2. Mechanical Vectors
 Types of Vectors
1. Biological Vectors: Vectors that allow pathogens to multiply or undergo
development within their bodies before transmitting them to new hosts.
Examples:
1.Mosquitoes: Transmit diseases like malaria, dengue, Zika virus, and
yellow fever.
2.Ticks: Transmit diseases like Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain
spotted fever, and tick-borne encephalitis.
3.Sandflies: Transmit diseases like leishmaniasis.
4.Tsetse Flies: Transmit African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).

Characteristics:
5.Pathogens often complete part of their life cycle within the vector.
6.Transmission typically occurs through biting.
 Types of Vectors
2. Mechanical Vectors: Vectors that physically carry pathogens from one place or
host to another without allowing the pathogens to undergo biological changes within
them.
Examples:
• Houseflies: Can spread diseases like trachoma and cholera by carrying pathogens
on their body parts or through contaminated food.
• Cockroaches: Can spread various pathogens causing food poisoning and other
illnesses.
Characteristics:
• Pathogens are transported externally.
• No development or multiplication of the pathogen occurs within the vector.
 Vector-borne diseases
• Vector-borne diseases are human illnesses caused by parasites,
viruses and bacteria that are transmitted by vectors.
• Every year there are more than 700,000 deaths from diseases
such as malaria, dengue, schistosomiasis, human African
trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, yellow fever,
Japanese encephalitis and onchocerciasis.
• The burden of these diseases is highest in tropical and
subtropical areas, and they disproportionately affect the poorest
populations.
• Since 2014, major outbreaks of dengue, malaria, chikungunya,
yellow fever and Zika have afflicted populations, claimed lives,
and overwhelmed health systems in many countries.
• Other diseases such as Chikungunya, leishmaniasis and
lymphatic filariasis cause chronic suffering, life-long morbidity,
disability and occasional stigmatization.
• Distribution of vector-borne diseases is determined by a
complex set of demographic, environmental and social factors.
 Components of Transmission Cycles
• The transmission cycle of an arthropod-
borne disease involves several key
components: a parasite, a vertebrate host,
and a vector.
• Each component plays a crucial role in
maintaining and propagating the disease
within and across populations.
• Key Components
1. Parasite
2. Vertebrate Host
3. Vector
 Components of Transmission Cycles
1. Parasite
• Capable of developing and/or multiplying within both vertebrate host and vector tissues.
• Has evolved mechanisms to tolerate high constant body temperatures and evade the complex immune
systems of vertebrate hosts.
• Can also tolerate variable body temperatures and avoid the different defensive mechanisms of
arthropod vectors.
2. Vertebrate Host
• Develops a level of infection with the parasite that is infectious to a vector.
• Can serve as either the definitive host (where sexual reproduction of the parasite occurs) or the
intermediate host (where asexual reproduction occurs), depending on the life cycle of the parasite.
3. Vector
• Acquires the parasite from the infectious vertebrate host and is capable of transmission.
• Often an arthropod such as a mosquito, tick, or fly.
• Plays a role in maintaining the parasite's life cycle and facilitating its transmission to new vertebrate
hosts.
 MODES OF TRANSMISSION
• Horizontal transmission describes the passage of parasites between vectors, either by
transmission to and from vertebrate hosts or directly between vectors.
• Vertical transmission is the passage of parasites directly to subsequent life stages or generations
within vector population.
 Vertical Transmission
• Vertical transmission refers to the passage of pathogens from parent to
offspring. This mode of transmission ensures the persistence of the
pathogen within vector populations across generations. There are two
main types:
1.Transstadial Transmission
1. The pathogen is passed from one life stage to the next within the same
individual vector.
2. Example: Lyme disease spirochetes (Borrelia burgdorferi) are acquired by
larval ticks and are passed to the nymphal stage through the molt.
2.Transgenerational Transmission
1. The pathogen is passed from parent to offspring, usually through the eggs.
2. Example: La Crosse Virus (LACV) is transmitted transovarially from
infected female Aedes mosquitoes to their offspring. The virus is then
maintained transstadially through the larval and pupal stages until the new
 Horizontal Transmission
• Horizontal transmission refers to the transfer of pathogens between
individuals other than parent to offspring. It is the primary mode of
transmission for most vector-borne diseases and can occur in several
ways:
1. Direct Transmission to Vertebrate Hosts
2. Mechanical Transmission
3. Propagative Transmission
4. Cyclodevelopmental Transmission
5. Cyclopropagative Transmission
6. Posterior-Station Transmission
 Horizontal Transmission
1. Direct Transmission to Vertebrate Hosts:
• Vectors, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and flies, acquire pathogens by feeding on
an infected host and later transmit the pathogens to new hosts through
subsequent feedings.
• Example: Malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.) are transmitted by Anopheles
mosquitoes. The mosquito feeds on an infected human, acquires the parasites,
and then transmits them to another human during its next blood meal.
2. Mechanical Transmission:
• Pathogens are transferred without undergoing development or multiplication
within the vector. This typically involves contamination of the vector's
mouthparts or body.
• Example: Eye gnats (Hippelates spp.) can mechanically transmit the bacteria
causing conjunctivitis (pink eye) by feeding on eye secretions of infected
individuals and then contacting the eyes of healthy individuals.
 Horizontal Transmission
3. Propagative Transmission:
• The pathogen multiplies within the vector but does not change form.
After a period of incubation, the vector becomes infectious.
• Example: West Nile Virus (WNV) multiplies in the mosquito's body,
and after the virus escapes the midgut and infects the salivary glands,
the mosquito can transmit the virus during a blood meal.
4. Cyclodevelopmental Transmission:
• The pathogen undergoes development but does not multiply within the
vector.
• Example: Filarial worms (Wuchereria bancrofti) develop within
mosquitoes but do not multiply. The larvae mature in the mosquito and
are transmitted during a blood meal.
 Horizontal Transmission
5. Cyclopropagative Transmission
• The pathogen undergoes both development and multiplication within
the vector.
• Example: Malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.) develop and multiply
in the mosquito gut, eventually migrating to the salivary glands where
they can be transmitted during the next blood meal.
6. Posterior-Station Transmission
• Pathogens are transmitted through vector feces rather than saliva.
• Example: Chagas disease (Trypanosoma cruzi) is transmitted when the
triatomine bug defecates on the host's skin during feeding. The host
then scratches the bite site, introducing the parasite into the wound.
 Summary of Key Points
Horizontal Transmission:
• Direct transmission to vertebrates via blood meals.
• Mechanical transmission through contaminated mouthparts.
• Propagative, cyclodevelopmental, and cyclopropagative transmission
involving pathogen development and/or multiplication within the
vector.
• Posterior-station transmission through contaminated feces.
Vertical Transmission:
• Transstadial transmission through successive life stages within the
vector.
• Transgenerational transmission through infected eggs, ensuring
pathogen persistence across generations.
Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Diseases and control Strategies
• The epidemiology of these diseases involves understanding the interactions between vectors, hosts, and pathogens, as well as
environmental and socio-economic factors that influence disease transmission.
Key Concepts in Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Diseases
1. Vectors:
1. Organisms that transmit pathogens from one host to another.
2. Common vectors include mosquitoes (malaria, dengue), ticks (Lyme disease), and flies (trypanosomiasis).
2. Hosts:
1. Humans or animals that harbor the pathogen.
2. Can be definitive hosts (where sexual reproduction of the pathogen occurs) or intermediate hosts (where asexual
reproduction occurs).
3. Pathogens:
1. The infectious agents causing the disease, such as viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths.
4. Transmission Cycles:
1. Complex interactions between vectors, hosts, and pathogens.
2. Involve various stages of pathogen development and transmission.
5. Environmental Factors:
1. Climate, vegetation, and water sources that affect vector habitats and population dynamics.
2. Seasonal changes can influence the prevalence of vector-borne diseases.
6. Socio-Economic Factors:
1. Human behaviors, housing conditions, and access to healthcare can impact disease transmission and control efforts.
Control Strategies for Vector-Borne Diseases
1.Vector Control:
1. Chemical Control: Use of insecticides to kill vectors. Example: Indoor residual
spraying (IRS) and insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) for malaria control.
2. Biological Control: Introduction of natural predators or pathogens to control
vector populations. Example: Use of fish that eat mosquito larvae.
3. Environmental Management: Reducing vector habitats by draining stagnant
water or managing vegetation. Example: Eliminating standing water to control
mosquito breeding sites.
2.Personal Protection:
1. Use of repellents, protective clothing, and bed nets to prevent vector bites.
2. Example: DEET-based repellents and long-sleeved clothing to prevent mosquito
bites.
3.Vaccination:
1. Development and use of vaccines to protect against specific vector-borne diseases.
2. Example: Yellow fever vaccine and dengue vaccine (Dengvaxia).
Control Strategies for Vector-Borne Diseases
4. Surveillance and Monitoring:
• Tracking vector populations and disease incidence to identify outbreaks and target
control measures.
• Example: Sentinel surveillance systems for early detection of malaria outbreaks.
5. Public Health Education:
• Raising awareness about vector-borne diseases and promoting behaviors that
reduce risk.
• Example: Community education campaigns on the importance of using bed nets
and eliminating mosquito breeding sites.
6. Integrated Vector Management (IVM):
• A comprehensive approach that combines multiple control methods tailored to
local conditions.
• Example: Combining chemical, biological, and environmental control measures
for more effective and sustainable vector management.
Emerging and Reemerging Vector-Borne Diseases
• Emerging and reemerging VBDs pose significant public health
challenges globally due to factors such as climate change,
urbanization, and increased human mobility.
• Definitions
• Emerging Diseases: Diseases that have recently appeared within a
population or whose incidence or geographic range is rapidly
increasing.
• Reemerging Diseases: Diseases that were previously under control
but are now experiencing a resurgence in incidence or geographic
range.
Factors Contributing to Emergence and Reemergence
1.Climate Change:
1. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can expand the habitats of
vectors, leading to the spread of diseases to new areas.
2. Example: Increased temperatures have expanded the range of Aedes
mosquitoes, vectors for dengue and Zika viruses.
2.Urbanization and Land Use Changes:
1. Rapid urbanization can create environments conducive to vector breeding,
such as standing water in construction sites.
2. Deforestation can bring humans into closer contact with vectors.
3.Global Travel and Trade:
1. Increased international travel and trade facilitate the rapid spread of vectors
and pathogens across borders.
2. Example: The global spread of Zika virus during the 2015-2016 outbreak.
 Factors Contributing to Emergence and Reemergence
4. Human Behavior and Socio-Economic Factors:
• Poor housing and sanitation can increase exposure to vectors.
• Movement of populations due to conflict or economic migration can spread diseases.
5. Pathogen Evolution:
• Genetic mutations can lead to new strains of pathogens with increased virulence or resistance to existing
treatments.
• Example: Drug-resistant strains of malaria.
6. Breakdown of Public Health Measures:
• Reduced investment in vector control programs and healthcare infrastructure can lead to the resurgence of
diseases.
• Example: Resurgence of malaria in areas where control efforts have lapsed.
Examples of Emerging and Reemerging Vector-Borne Diseases
1. Dengue Fever:
• Vector: Aedes mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus).
• Emergence: Increased urbanization and global travel have led to the spread
of dengue to new regions, including the Southern United States and Europe.
• Reemergence: Areas where dengue was previously under control are seeing
new outbreaks due to changes in vector distribution and climate conditions.
2. Malaria:
• Vector: Anopheles mosquitoes.
• Reemergence: Despite significant global control efforts, malaria has
resurged in areas where control measures have weakened.
• Drug Resistance: The emergence of drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium
falciparum poses a major challenge to malaria control.