Unit I

Q: -What are the different types of Hosts?

Ans: - Hosts are the animals which lodge parasites. They are larger than the parasites
in size. Different types of hosts are as under: -
1. Primary Host (Definitive host): It is the host that harbours the adult stage or
sexually mature stage of a parasite or the host in which the parasite undergoes sexual
reproduction. e.g., Man is the primary host for Wuchereria bancrofti (Filarial Worm),
Female anopheles’ mosquito is the primary host for malaria causing protozoan
Plasmodium vivax.
2.Secondary Host (Intermediate host): Is the host that harbours the developing larval
or immature or asexual stages of a parasite or the host in which the parasite undergoes
asexual reproduction. e.g, Man is the secondary host for plasmodium vivax, Female
culex mosquito is the secondary host for Wuchereria bancrofti.
3.Paratenic Host (A carrier or transport host): An intermediate host which is not
needed for the development of the parasite, but nonetheless serves to maintain the life
cycle of the parasite. It is a host, where the parasite remains viable without further
development. A paratenic host is similar to an intermediate host, except that it is not
needed for the parasite's development cycle to progress. Paratenic hosts serve as
"dumps" for non-mature stages of a parasite in which they can accumulate in high
numbers.
4. Reservoir Host: Also known as temporary host. It is the host that lodges the
infective stages of a parasite in its body when the main host is not available. In the
reservoir host, the parasite neither undergoes development nor causes any disease. In
the absence of regular host some parasites survive in the reservoir hosts. Reservoir
hosts become the source of infection for regular hosts. Reservoir hosts are not essential
for the parasite to complete its life cycle. e.g, Monkey is the reservoir host for
Plasmodium.
5. Vector Host: Vector is an organism which transfers the infective stages of a
parasite from one main host to another. It is host in which part of life cycle of host
takes place and is instrumental in transmission of infective stages of parasite from one
host to another.
Vectors are of two types, namely;
A) Mechanical Vector: It is the vector, which merely transfers the infective stages of
a parasite but no part of the parasitic development takes place in it. e.g., Houseflies and
Cockroaches in the case of Entamoeba.
B) Biological Vector: It is the vector in which the parasite undergoes a part of the
development before it gets transferred to another host. e.g., Female anopheles’
mosquito in the case of Plasmodium and Female culex mosquioto in the case of
Wuchereria.
Q: -Types of relationships (Parastism, Symbiosis, Commensalism)
Parasitism: -Parasitism is defined as a relationship between organisms in which one
organism lives in or on another organism. The parasites feed on the cells, tissues or
fluids of another organisms, the host, which is harmed in this process. The parasite
depends on the host and lives in intimate physical and metabolic contact with the host.
All types of plants and animals are susceptible to attack by microbial parasites.

Beneficial Interactions
The beneficial interactions such as symbiosis (mutualism), proto cooperation, and
commensalism are found to operate among the soil inhabitants.
Symbiosis (Mutualism)
Mutualism is an example of symbiotic relationship in which each organism benefits
from the association. One type of mutualistic association is that involving the
exchange of nutrients, between two species, a phenomenon called syntrophisms.
Many microorganism’s synthesis vitamins and amino acids in excess of their
nutritional requirements. Others have a requirement for one or more of these nutrients.

Symbiosis is an obligatory relationship between two populations that benefit both the
populations. Both populations are living together for mutual benefit. The relationship
between algae and fungi that result in the formation of lichens is a classical example of
mutualistic intermicrobial relationship. Lichens are composed of primary producer, the
phycosymbiont (algae) and a consumer the mycosymbiont (fungus).
Commensalism
In a commercial relationship between two microbial populations, one population is
benefited and other population remains unaffected. Commensalism is a unidirectional
relationship between two populations. The unaffected population does not benefit by
the action of second population. For receiving population, the benefit provided may be
essential.
In commensalism, the unaffected population modifies the habitat in such a
way that another population benefits. For example, a population of facultative
anaerobes utilizes oxygen and creates a habitat suitable for the growth of anaerobes.
In soil, vitamin and growth factors producing organisms benefit vitamin and growth
factors requiring organisms.
Q: -Define Zoonosis.
Ans: - The word “zoonoses” (singular zoonosis) originated from the Greek word
„zoon‟ meaning animal, „nosos‟ meaning disease and it was Rudolf Virchow who first
used this term in 1855 in his famous „Handbook of Communicable Disease‟ to
describe the animal diseases secondarily transmissible to man.
Zoonosis refers to diseases that can be passed from animals to humans.
They are sometimes called zoonotic diseases. Animals can carry harmful germs, such
as bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses. These are then shared with humans and cause
illness. Zoonotic diseases range from mild to severe, and some can even be fatal.

Classification of Zoonosis
As per classification adopted by the joint WHO/FAO Expert Group on zoonoses, the
zoonoses have been grouped into three categories:
[A] Based in terms of reservoir host:
1. Anthropozoonoses: The infections transmitted to man from lower vertebrates are
termed as Anthropozoonoses. e.g., Ascariosis.
2. Zooanthroponoses: The infections transmitted to lower vertebrate animals from
man referred as zooanthroponoses. The infections are primarily of human origin, e.g.
Schistosomosis, Hymenolepiosis.
3. Amphixenoses: The infection maintained between man and lower vertebrate
animals, which may be transmitted in either direction, e.g. Salmonellosis.
[B] Based upon the type of life cycle:
1. Direct zoonoses: The infection transmitted from the infected vertebrate host to a
susceptible vertebrate host (e.g. Man) either by direct contact, contact with a fomite or
by a mechanical vector. During transmission the agent undergoes no developmental
and little or no propagative changes e.g. Trichinellosis.
2. Cyclozoonoses: The infection requires more than one vertebrate host species in
order to complete the life cycle of the agent. No invertebrate hosts are required.
Type I - Obligatory Cyclozoonoses - Man must be one of the vertebrate hosts in these
cycles e.g. Taenia saginata and T. solium infections.
Type II - Non-obligatory Cyclozoonoses - Man is sometime involved, but the human
involvement is the exception rather than the rule e.g. hydatid disease.
3. Metazoonoses: The infection is transmitted biologically by the invertebrate vectors.
In the invertebrate, the agent multiplies (Propagative or cyclopropagative
transmission), in which case the invertebrate also serves as reservoir of infection or the
agent merely develops (developmental transmission). In the metazoonoses there is
always an extrinsic incubation period in the invertebrate hosts before transmission to
another vertebrate hosts is possible.
Depending upon the hosts required, at least four subtypes of metazoonoses
may be distinguished:
Subtype I - requiring one vertebrate host and one invertebrate host e.g. yellow fever.
Subtype II - requiring one vertebrate host and two invertebrate hosts e.g.
paragonimosis.
Subtype III - requiring two vertebrate hosts and one invertebrate host e.g.
clonorchiosis.
Subtype IV - representing transovarian trans mission e.g. tick-borne encephalitis.
4. Saprozoonoses:Saprozoonoses are those zoonoses which require a non-animal site
to serve either as a true reservoir of infection or as a site for an essential phase of
development. Considered as nonanimal are organic matter (including food), soil and
plants e.g. various forms of larva migrans.
[C] Based upon etiological agent:
1. Bacterial zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by bacterial agents e.g. brucellosis, plague,
salmonellosis, anthrax.
2. Viral zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by viruses e.g. rabies, influenza, yellow fever.
3. Rickettsial zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by rickettsia e.g. Qfever, tick typhus.
4. Protozoan zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by protozoans e.g. toxoplasmosis,
trypanosomosis, leishmaniosis.
5. Helminthic zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by helminthes e.g. hydatidosis, taeniosis,
schistosomosis, trichinellosis.
6. Fungal zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by fungal agents e.g. histoplasmosis,
cryptococcosis.
7. Ectoparasitic zoonoses: Zoonoses caused by ectoparasites e.g. scabies, myiasis.
Factors Responsible for Emergence /Reemergent Of Zoonotic Diseases
 Population explosion
 Exploitation of newer Geographical areas.
 Construction of pipe lines, roads, rivers, dams, new colonies, mining and similar
ecology damaging activities
 Change in foods and food technology etc.
Q: - What is tuberculosis?
Ans: - Tuberculosis is an infectious disease that usually affects the lungs. Compared
with other diseases caused by a single infectious agent, tuberculosis is the second
biggest killer, globally.
Doctors make a distinction between two kinds of tuberculosis infection: latent and
active.
Latent TB - the bacteria remain in the body in an inactive state. They cause no
symptoms and are not contagious, but they can become active.
Active TB - the bacteria do cause symptoms and can be transmitted to others.
Zoonotic tuberculosis (TB) is a form of tuberculosis in people caused by
Mycobacterium bovis, which belongs to the M. tuberculosis complex. Cattles are most
important animal reservoir for M. bovis in relation to zoonotic exposure of humans.
But the disease can affect many other species snd become established in wildlife
reservoirs. It often affects sites other than the lungs (extrapulmonary), but in many
cases is clinically indistinguishable from TB caused by M. tuberculosis.
Prevention And control:
Improve the Scientific Evidence Base
1. Systematically survey, collect, analyse and report better quality data on the
incidence of zoonotic TB in people, and improve surveillance and reporting of bovine
TB in livestock and wildlife.
2. Expand the availability of appropriate diagnostic tools and capacity for testing to
identify and characterize zoonotic TB in people.
3. Identify and address research gaps in zoonotic and bovine TB, including
epidemiology, diagnostic tools, vaccines, effective patient treatment regimens, health
systems and interventions coordinated with veterinary services.
Reduce Transmission at The Animal-Human Interface
4. Develop strategies to improve food safety.
5. Develop capacity of the animal health sector to reduce the prevalence of TB in
livestock.
6. Identify key populations and risk pathways for transmission of zoonotic TB.
Strengthen Intersectoral And Collaborative Approaches
7. Increase awareness of zoonotic TB, engage key public and private stakeholders and
establish effective intersectoral collaboration.
8. Develop and implement policies and guidelines for the prevention, surveillance,
diagnosis, and treatment of zoonotic TB, in line with intergovernmental standards
where relevant.
9. Identify opportunities for community-tailored interventions that jointly address
human and animal health.
10. Develop an investment case to advocate for political commitment and funding to
address zoonotic TB across sectors at the global, regional and national levels
Q: - What is typhoid?
Ans: -Typhoid is a bacterial infection that can lead to a high fever, diarrhea, and
vomiting. It can be fatal. It is caused by the bacteria Salmonella typhi.
The infection is often passed on through contaminated food and drinking water,
and it is more prevalent in places where handwashing is less frequent. It can also be
passed on by carriers who do not know they carry the bacteria.
Annually, there are around 5,700 cases in the United States, and 75 percent of
these start while traveling internationally. Globally, around 21.5 million people a year
contract typhoid.
If typhoid is caught early, it can be successfully treated with antibiotics; if it is
not treated, typhoid can be fatal.
 SYMPTOMS:
SYMPTOMS: Headache & typhoid fever which rise to the Headache & typhoid fever
which rise to the maximum in the afternoon. Maximum in the afternoon. High fever in
the second weak & then gradually High fever in the second weak & then gradually
declines during third & fourth week. Declines during third & fourth week.
 PREVENTION:
PREVENTION: Proper sanitation. Proper sanitation. TAB-vaccination provides
immunity. TAB-vaccination provides immunity. Typhoral oral vaccine also prevents
typhoid. Typhoral oral vaccine also prevents typhoid.
 CONTROL:
CONTROL: There are standard drugs against There are standard drugs against
typhoid which cure the disease. Typhoid which cure the disease.
Q: -Explain the life cycle of Entamoeba histolytica?
Ans: - Entamoeba histolytica is a parasitic protozoan and lives as an endo-parasite in
the upper part of the large intestine, i.e., colon of man. It inhabits the mucous and sub-
mucous layers of the large intestine. It feeds mainly on the tissues of the intestinal wall
and often produces severe ulcers and abscesses. The parasite is worldwide in
distribution and more common in most countries of trop-ics and subtropics rather than
temperate zones. E. histolytica is scarcely pathogenic found in human beings of
temperate zones.
Life Cycle of Entamoeba histolytica:
The life cycle of E. histolytica is completed through a single host-man. Hence it is
called monogenetic. Trophozoite and cyst stages of the parasite are concerned with the
life cycle.
Encystment: Entamoeba histolytica multi-plies by binary fission in the trophozoite
stage. They have the capacity to encyst. Unfavourable conditions in the habitat such as
lack of nutrients, temperature deviations from the optimum range, decreased O2
tensions, lowered pH and accumulation of metabolic wastes may be the causes for
encystment.
Precystic form: Prior to encystment the trophozoite of each parasite loses its pseu-
dopodium, eliminates food vacuoles and becomes spherical, called a precystic form.
The diameter of this stage varies 10-20 µm and the structure of the nucleus is like the
trophozoite stage of the parasite.
Mature cyst form: The precystic form secrets a thin, tough and transparent mem-
brane around it, called the cyst wall. The animal having a cyst is called a cyst. The
process of enclosing in a cyst is called encystment or encystation. At the early stage
the cyst contains a single nucleus. The single nucleus is divided mitotically forming
two nuclei. This is called binucleate cystic stage. Then the two nuclei are divided by
mitosis and four nuclei occur. The nuclear divisions take place without cytoplasmic
division and this tetra-nucleate cyst is called mature cyst. The whole process of
encystment takes a few hours and the mature cyst lives in the lumen of the intestine of
host only two days.
Tolerance of the cyst: The cysts of E. histolytica can survive about one month in
water and about 12 days on dry land. They can tolerate the temperature up to 50°
Celsius and 4 hours in formaldehyde solution.
Infection: At the tetranucleate stage the cyst is infective to a new host. The infective
cysts pass out through the host’s faeces and are introduced into the gut lumen of a new
host through the contaminated drink, food and vegetables.
Excystment: Then the infective cysts pass into the lower portion of the small intestine
(colon) of the new host. Here the process of excystment occurs. The excystment is the
process by which the cysts are transformed into the trophozoites. The cyst wall in the
colon becomes permeable by the action of intestinal enzymes, the trypsin of the intes-
tine. The cyst wall ruptures and 4-nucleate amoeba emerges out from the cyst.
Factors for excystment: Temperature, pH, chemical composition of the medium and
the flora of the bacteria may be the reasons for excystment.
Metacystic form: After the emergence of quadrinucleate amoeba, the division of cyto-
plasm immediately ensues and produces four small metacystic trophozoites.
Trophozoites: Both the nucleus and cytoplasm of each metacystic trophozoite divide
and as a result 8 small amoebulae are produced. These are called young uninucleate
trophozoites. They are motile and penetrate the mucous membrane.
The young trophozoites feed on host tissues, blood, bacteria and yeast and
gradually in-crease in size to attain maturity. Inside the tissues the trophozoites
multiply and start the procystic form of the life cycle. Transformation of a
quadrinucleate metacystic stage of entamoeba histolytica to eight uninucleate
trophozoites
Transmission: Cysts of Entamoeba are transmitted from one individual to another in a
variety of ways:
1. The cysts are generally transmitted with food or drink.
2. House flies and cockroaches may trans-mit cysts mechanically.
3. Raw vegetable is also another source of infection.
4. In many countries human faeces are used as fertilizer and thus roots and leaves of
plants remain contaminated with viable cysts. Food handlers are also sometimes
responsible for the spread of infection owing to imperfect personal sanitary measures.
Q: - Explain the pathogenicity of Entamoeba histolytica?
Ans: Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebiasis or amoebic dysentery or intestinal
amoebiasis or tropical amoebiasis.
 Trophozoites dissolve the mucosal lining by histolysin. It causes ulcers. These
ulcers contain cellular debris, lymphocytes, RBC and bacteria.
 It leads into formation of abscesses in the wall of large intestine. It results in stool
with blood and mucous.
 Some persons do not exhibit any symptoms in spite of having cysts. They are called
as carriers or asymptomatic cyst passers.
 Trophozoites rupture the wall of capillaries enters the blood stream and reach the
liver where they cause abscesses (secondary amoebiasis). From there they go to lungs,
heart, brain, kidneys gonads and cause abscesses in them.
Following measures are essential in the prevention of the disease:
1. Sanitary disposal of faecal matter.
2. Perfect sanitation and protection of water and vegetables from pollution.
3. Washing of hands with antiseptic soap and water before touching the food.
4. Cleanliness in preparing the food.
5. Protection of foods and drinks from houseflies, cockroaches, etc.
6. Raw and improperly washed and cooked vegetables should be avoided.
Q: -Describe the life cycle of Plasmodium vivax in man?
Ans. Life cycle of Plasmodium vivax in man: -In man, Plasmodium reproduces by
asexual reproduction known as schizogony. It occurs in hepatocytes of liver as hepatic
schizogony and erythrocytes (RBC) as erythrocytic schizogony.
Hepatic Schizogony: it was explained by Shortt and Garnham. Sporozoites of
Plasmodium enter into the blood of man from female Anopheles and reach the
hepatocytes within half an hour and undergo pre-erythrocytic and exo-erythrocytic
cycles in the following manner.
1. Pre-erythrocyticcycle:
a) sporozoites transform into trophozoites and feed on the contents of hepatic cells
and attain maximum size and becomes Schizontstage.
b) Nucleus divides for many times mitotically which is followed by cytoplasmic
divisions and thus form 12,000 cryptozoites or 1st generationmerozoites.
c) cryptozoites enter the sinusoids of liver. It takes place in 8days.
d) Some of them enter RBCs and majority of them enter fresh livercells.
2. Exo-erythrocyticcycle:
a) cryptozoites after entering the liver cells undergo same changes of pre-erythrocytic
cycle and form into second generation merozoites orMetacryptozoites.
b) Metacryptozoites are of two types
a) Smaller micro-metacryptozoites
b) Larger Macro-metacryptozoites.
c) Macro-metacryptozoites attack fresh liver cells and continue another exo-
erythrocytic cycle.
d) Micro-metacryptozoites enter RBC to continue erythrocytic cycles and
produce merozoites.
3. Erythrocytic cycle:
i) life cycle of Plasmodium vivax in erythrocytes of man was described by Camillo
Golgi. So, it is called as Golgi cycle.
ii) Golgi cycle is started by either cryptozoites of pre-erythrocytic
cycle or the micrometacryptozites of exo-erythrocytic cycle.
iii) In fresh RBC, Plasmodium gets spherical shaped trophozoites. It develops a small
vacuole which enlarges in size and pushes the cytoplasm and nucleus to periphery.
iv) Plasmodium looks like a finger ring. So, this stage is known as signet ring stage.
v) It loses vacuole and develops pseudopodia and becomes amoeboid stage or late
trophozoite stage.
vi) It feeds on contents of RBC with pseudopodia and increases in size. It results the
doubling of the size of RBC. This condition is known as hypertrophy.
vii) Plasmodium digests the globin part of ingested haemoglobin and converts the
soluble haem into an insoluble hamozoin (malaria pigment).
viii) Small red coloured dots appear in the cytoplasm of the RBC known as
Schuffner’s dots. They are antigens formed by parasite.
ix) Plasmodium loses pseudopodia and increases in size, occupies the entire RBC and
becomes a Schizont.
x) It undergoes schizogony (a type of multiple fission) and produces 12-24
erythrocytic merozoites. They are arranged irregularly in RBC.
xi) Erythrocyte bursts and releases the merozoites along with haemozoin into the
blood. It is completed in 48 hours/2days.
Q: -Describe the life cycle of Plasmodium in mosquito or Ross cycle?
Ans. Gametocytes of Plasmodium enter into the crop of female Anopheles mosquito.
In mosquito the life cycle of Plasmodium continues in the following stages….
a) Gametogony
b) Fertilization
c) Formation of ookinete & oocysts
d) Sporogony
A) Gametogony: it is the formation of male and female gametes from the
gametocytes.
It occurs in the lumen of crop of mosquito.
1. Formation of male gametes: nucleus of microgametocyte divides into 8 daughter
nuclei known as pronuclei. They reach the periphery. Cytoplasm is pushed out in
the form of 8 flagella like processes. Each process receives one pronucleus and
forms a micro gamete or male gamete
male gametes show lashing movements like flagella and get separated from
cytoplasm of microgametocyte. This process is known as exflagellation.
2. Formation of female gametes: female gametocyte undergoes a few changes and
transform into a female gamete by maturation. Nucleus of female gamete moves
towards the periphery and Cytoplasm at that point forms a projection known as
fertilizationcone.
B) Fertilization: fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization. It
occurs in crop of mosquito. Actively moving microgamete comes in contact with
female gamete at fertilization cone. Later pronuclei and cytoplasm of both gametes
fuse and form a synkaryon. This type of fusion of dissimilar gametes is known as
anisogamy. Female gamete with synkayon is known as Zygote which is round and non
motile.
C) Formation of Ookinete and Oocysts:
Zygote remains inactive for some time and transform into a long, slender, motile,
vermiform within 18-24 hours. Ookinete pierces the wall of crop and settles beneath
the basement rane. It becomes round and secretes a cyst around the body and becomes
OOCYST. About 50-500 oocyts are formed on the wall of crop and appear as nodules.
D)Sporogony:
Formation of sporozoites in oocyts is known as sporogony. According to Bano, the
nucleus of oocyts first undergoes reduction division followed by Repeated mitotic
divisions which result in the formation of sporoblasts. Each nucleus is surrounded by a
little bit of cytoplasm and transforms into sickle shaped Sporozoites. Oocyts with
sporozoites is known as Sporocyst. By rupturing of sporocyst about 10,000 sporozoites
are released into the haemocoel of Mosquito. They enter into salivary glands of
mosquito and are ready for infection. Life cycle of Plasmodium in mosquito is
completed in about 10-24days.

Q: - Explain the life cycle of Trypanosoma gambiense?

Ans: - It is a protozoan flagellate parasite of human blood transmitted by Tse-tse fly. It
is commonly distributed in central Africa, Egyptian countries and almost all territories
which have low marshy land. Trypanosoma gambiense lives as a parasite in the blood,
lymph, lymph nodes, spleen, or cerebrospinal fluid of man and in the intestine of
blood-sucking fly Glossina palpalis (Tsetse fly). It causes sleeping sickness in man.
Life Cycle
Trypanosoma gambiense is digenetic; i.e., it completes its life cycle in two hosts. The
primary or definitive host is man. The mammals, like pigs, buffaloes, antelopes often
act as reservoir hosts harbouring the parasite. The intermediate host is blood sucking
insect called tsetse fly (Glossina palpalis).
Life cycle in man: The metacyclic stage (infective form) of T. gambiense is
introduced into the body of man by the bite of the tsetse fly, Glossina palpalis. The
tsetse fly harbours the meta-cyclic form in the lumen of its salivary glands. When the
vector sucks human’s blood, it introduces the contained trypanosomes into his blood
stream. During sucking through the proboscis, the fly releases metacyclic forms along
with saliva. The saliva of tsetse fly contains an anticoagulant which prevents the
clotting of blood.
Multiplication: All stages of Trypanosoma in man are extracellular as the parasites
are found in blood plasma and not inside blood corpuscles. Within the host’s blood the
metacyclic forms (which are devoid of flagellum) become trans-formed into long,
slender and flagellated forms. They swim within the human blood by the beating of
their free flagella and the vibratile movements of the undulating membrane. The adult
forms of the parasite multiply by longitudinal binary fission. The multiplication
commences at the kinetoplast and is followed by the division of nucleus and
cytoplasm.
Metamorphosis: When the glycolysis process is hampered and trypanosomes stop
multiplying. The long slender parasites now shrink to short stumpy forms which are
devoid of free flagellum. During transformation from long slender form to short
stumpy form, the intermediate form along with a small free flagellum also appears.
The stumpy forms do not feed and ultimately die. These stumpy forms remain latent
till tsetse fly sucks them up along with the blood of the host. Unless this occurs within
a reasonable time the stumpy forms degenerate and perish.

Life cycle in tsetse fly: When this insect vector sucks the blood of an infected person,
it also takes short stumpy forms of trypomastigote along with the sucked blood. Now
these stumpy forms continue development in the midgut of insect vector.
Development in the Midgut of Insect Fly: Further change of trypomastigote occurs
in the insect vector’s midgut within peritrophic membrane and the short stumpy forms
of the parasites trans-form into long slender forms. Now these long slender forms
appear which pass to posterior end of the extraperitrophic space (a space between the
peritrophic membrane and epithelial cells), where they continue to multiply for some
days. By the 15th day they escape from the peritrophic space and enter the lumen of
the proventriculus (the periventricular form is the same as that of the midgut form).
Development within the Salivary Gland of Insect Fly: Later the long slender forms
make their way into salivary glands through the hypo- pharynx. Here they multiply
and change their morphology, first into epimastigote and then into the metacyclic stage
(short stumpy forms of trypo-mastigote) which are infective to man. It has been
reported that the time taken for the complete evolution of the infective forms
(metacyclic stage) inside the vector insect is about 20 days. These flies remain
infective for the rest of their lives, a period extending up to 185 days. When the vector
fly bites a healthy person, it transfers the metacyclic forms along with saliva into his
blood where they initiate another infection.
Pathogenicity and Symptoms of Trypanosoma gambiense:
The bite of an infected fly is usually followed by itching and irritation near the wound,
and frequently a local dark red lesion develops. In blood, the parasite multiplies and
absorbs nutrients from it. After a few days, fever and headache develop, recurring at
regular intervals accompanied by increasing weakness, loss of weight and anaemia.
Usually, the parasites succeed in penetrating the lymphatic glands. Because of
its infection, the lymphatic glands swell and after it the parasites enter the
cerebrospinal fluid and brain causing a sleeping sickness like condition. Development
of lethargic condition and recurrence of fever are the symptoms of its infection.
Trypanosoma gambiense causes trypanosomiasis; most commonly referred to as
sleeping sickness leading to coma stage and finally resulting into the death of the
patient. In fact, two types of diseases are caused by Trypanosome which are essentially
similar in symptoms. These are Gambian and Rhodesian sleeping sickness. The
Gambian sleeping sickness occurs in western part of Africa and its vector is Glossina
palpalis, while Rhodesian sleeping sickness occurs in rest of Africa and its vector is
Glossinamorsitans. The only difference between the two is that the latter is more rapid
causing the death of the patient within 3-4 months of infection.
Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Disease Caused by Trypanosoma
gambiense: The diagnosis is confirmed by examining fresh or stained peripheral blood
or by examining the cerebrospinal fluid obtained by lumbar puncture or by examining
the extract of enlarged lymphatic glands.
Treatment (Therapy): Arsenic and antimony compounds were until recently the
drugs for treatment of trypanosomiasis, but now they are rarely used except for late
stages when the parasites have invaded the central nervous system.
Prevention (Prophylaxis): The following measures are suggested for preventing the
infection of this parasite:
1. By eradicating the vectors. The infection of this parasite can be checked by
completely eradicating the secondary host (Tsetse fly). For this, the endemic areas
should be kept clean and regular spray of insecticides like DDT is suggested which
help in eradicating the fly.
2. Care should be taken to keep the reservoir hosts free from its infection.
3. Preventive medicines should be taken frequently and periodically which help to a
great extent from its infection
Q: - Explain the life cycle of Ancylostoma duodenale?
Ans: -Ancylostoma duodenale is a species of the roundworm genus Ancylostoma. It is
a parasitic nematode worm and commonly known as the Old-World hookworm. It
lives in the small intestine of hosts such as humans, cats and dogs, where it is able to
mate and mature. It is also called the common hookworm.
Life History of Ancylostoma duodenale:
The life history of Ancylostoma duodenale is monogenetic as no intermediate host is
required; man is the only main host for Ancylostoma duodenale.
Copulation and Fertilization: Copulation occurs in the intestine of the host, during
the process the copulatory bursa of male is applied on the vulva of female and sperms
are transferred. In fact, during copulation the worms (a male and a female) assume a
Y-shaped figure owing to the position of the genital openings. The sperms, thus,
transferred come to lie in the seminal receptacles where fertilisation takes places. The
fertilised eggs are then pushed into the uteri for laying through vagina and gonopore.

Egg Laying: The female worm lays eggs in the intestine of the host which pass out
with faeces. On an average nearly 9,000 eggs are laid per day by a female. The eggs
are oval or elliptical in shape measuring 65 pm in length by 40 pm in breadth,
colourless and protected by a transparent hyaline shell-membrane. An egg that comes
out of the host body possesses an embryo up to 4-celled or 8- celled stage. The eggs,
which passed out with the faeces, are not infective to man.
Development in Soil: Under favourable conditions of environment like moisture,
oxygen and temperature (about 68-85°F), the embryo develops into a rhabditiform
larva or first stage juvenile; it is about 250 µm in length. This larva hatches out of the
egg in the soil in about 48 hours. This larva possesses the mouth, buccal capsule,
elongated pharynx, bulb-like oesophagus and intestine. It feeds on bacteria and other
debris of the soil and moults twice, on the third day and the fifth day. It then develops
into a filariform larva measuring about 500 to 600 pm in length. It is the infective stage
of the parasite. This larva does not feed but remains infective and alive for several
weeks under favourable conditions. The time taken for development from eggs to
filiform larvae, is on an average 8 to 10 days.
Infection to New Host: The filiform larvae are infective to man. The larvae cast off
their sheaths and penetrate the skin of a human host. The anterior end of the larva is
provided with oral spears by which it penetrates the soft skin of the feet and hands,
generally through hair follicles.
Migration and Later Development: On reaching the subcutaneous tissues, the larvae
enter into the lymphatic’s and small venules. They pass through the lymphatic-
vascular system into the venous circulation and are carried through the right heart into
the pulmonary capillaries, where they break through the capillary walls to enter into
the alveolar spaces. They then migrate on the bronchi → trachea → larynx, and crawl
over the epiglottis to the back of the pharynx and are finally swallowed. During its
migration, when it reaches to oesophagus, its third moulting occurs and a terminal
buccal capsule is formed. The time taken in this migration is about 10 days. Thus,
finally the growing larvae settle down in the small intestine and undergo fourth and
final moult to become the adults. In about 3 to 4 weeks’ time they become sexually
mature to repeat the life history again. The life span of the adult worm in human
intestine has been estimated differently by different workers; generally, it is believed
to be 3 to 4 years.
Diagnosis, Disease and Pathogenicity of Ancylostoma duodenale:
The infection of hookworm is easily diagnosed by the presence of its eggs in faecal
smear from the patient. The disease caused by its infection is generally referred to as
ancylostomiasis.
The hookworms are the most dangerous parasitic nematodes because they hold
on to the intestinal villi and suck blood and body fluids of the host by their muscular
pharynx, they also cut holes in the intestinal mucosa and leave bleeding wounds. It
causes severe anaemia. In children, where incidence of infection is very great, they
retard the physical and mental growth.
Some toxins secreted by the glands in the head region of worms cause
stomachache, food fermentation, diarrhoea, constipation, dyspnea, palpitation of heart,
eosinophilia, ill health and the patient may finally collapse.
During penetration of larvae in the skin, local irritation is caused resulting into
inflammation of the surrounding tissues; these may result into tiny sores. The
migratory larvae in lungs may cause haemorrhage and bronchial pneumonites.
Treatment and Prevention of Infection Caused by Ancylostoma duodenale
Drugs like carbon tetrachloride, thymol, oil of chenopodium, hexylresorcinol, etc., are
used effectively to control the infection of Ancylostoma. Some other anti-helminth
drugs like tetrachloroethylene and blephenium are found to be more effective and are
safe to be used.
Prevention of Infection by Ancylostoma duodenale: The infection of Ancylostoma
duodenale can be checked effectively by improving the sanitary conditions to avoid
the contamination of faeces with the soil and other edibles, by protecting feet and
hands from being touched with the soil. Children should be directed to keep their
hands and nails clean.
Q: - Explain the life cycle of Wuchereria bancrofti?
Ans: -Wuchereria bancrofti is a dreadful endoparasite of man; adults harbouring the
lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes. Its life history is digenetic, as it involves a
secondary host, the blood-sucking insects, i.e., the female mosquitoes of the genus
Culex, Aedes or Anopheles; the secondary host for W. bancrofti in India and China is
Culex pipiens, in Pacific Islands (except Fiji and New Caledonia) is Anopheles
punctatus and in Polynesian Islands is Aedes polynesiensis. Wuchereria bancrofti is a
human parasitic roundworm that is the major cause of lymphatic filariasis.
Life History of Wuchereria bancrofti:
We know that Wuchereria bancrofti is digenetic, i.e., its life history is completed in
two hosts; man is the main host, while female mosquito, usually Culex pipiens, is the
secondary host. Mature male and female worms copulate in the lymph glands of man
where they usually live. Since female worm is viviparous or ovoviviparous, it delivers
numerous larvae called microfilariae. The microfilariae are born in very immature
stage.
However, microfilariae find their way into the blood stream where they can live for a
considerable time without undergoing any developmental changes. As referred to, due
to their nocturnal periodicity they are sucked up by the secondary host when it comes
to take its blood-meal from the human body.
Pathogenic manifestations of heavy infection of Wuchereria
The microfilariae, after reaching in the body of the secondary host, undergo further
development to become infective to man. In fact, immediately after their entry in the
stomach of mosquito, the sheaths around their bodies are shed off and then they
penetrate the gut wall within an hour or two and migrate to the thoracic muscles.
Here they become short and thick like sausages within 2 days having short spiky
tails and measure 124 to 250 µm in length and 10 to 17 pm in diameter, they also
possess rudimentary digestive tract. These are first stage larvae. Within next 3 to 7
days they grow rapidly and moult once or twice to become the second stage larvae;
they measure 225 to 330 µm in length and 15 to 30 pm in diameter.
Finally, by 10th or 11th day they become fully grown and are referred to as third
stage larvae; they measure about 1500 to 2000 pm in length and 18 to 23 µm in
diameter. This stage is infective to man. These larvae are inactive and come to lie in
the labium of the mosquito.
When the mosquito bites the warm and moist skin of man, the larvae creep out
of the labium to the human skin, then they penetrate into the skin and finally come to
settle down in the lymphatic’s. Here, they grow and become fully adult and sexually
mature within a period of 5 to 18 months.
These sexually mature worms start reproduction to repeat the life history again.
The life span of adult worms is very long, probably ranging from 5 to 10 years.

Diagnosis and Disease of Wuchereria bancrofti: The infection of

Wuchereriabancrofti is diagnosed by the presence of microfilariae in stained blood
smear and by the biopsy of lymph nodes. The disease caused by the infection of W.
bancrofti is, in general, referred to as wuchereriasis or filariasis.
Pathogenicity of Wuchereria bancrofti:
In fact, the pathogenic effects seen during filariasis are caused by living or dead adult
worms.
A light infection does not produce serious effects; it causes filarial fever,
headache and mental depression, etc. But, during heavy infection a large number of
pathological effects are observed; in this condition they block the lymphatic vessels
and glands causing lymphatic obstruction so that lymph cannot get back to the
circulatory system.
Hence, there occurs accumulation of lymph in the affected organs due to which they
swell fantastically, a condition called lymphoedema. When they infect lymph nodes
then they cause lymphadenitis, in lymph vessels they cause lymphangitis and after
infecting epididymis and related areas they cause hydrocele.
 However, the affected organs sometimes become enormously enlarged,
producing a tumour-like ugly look, this condition is called elephantiasis; the
elephantiasis of feet, hands, scrotum, etc., are of common occurrence in the areas
where W. bancrofti is prevalent.
Treatment and Prevention of Disease Caused by Wuchereria bancrofti: So far, no
satisfactory treatment has been reported. However, heterazan and compounds of
antimony and arsenic are used to reduce or eradicate microfilariae from the circulatory
system. The only way of prevention is to protect our bodies from mosquito bite.

UNIT-II
1. Insects of Economic Importance
Biology, control and damage caused by Helicoverpaarmigera, Pyrillaperpusilla and
papiliodemoleus, Callosobruchuschinesis, Sitophilus oryzaeTriboliumcastaneum
2. Insects of Medical Importance
Medical importance and control of Pediculus humans corporis, Anopheles, Culex, Aedes
Xenopsyllacheopis
3. Insect pests
Of crops, vegetables, oilseeds, coffee, tea
4. Insect pest management

Insects of Economic Importance

1. Helicoverpa armigera
Biology: -It is commonly known by the name Cotton Bollworm. The eggs are white to
yellowish, brownish at hatching. Young caterpillars are pale green, but later instars are
very variable in color (yellowish-green to dark brown) and markings. The adults vary
greatly, too; the forewings are yellowish to orange in females and greenish-gray in
males, with a slightly darker transversal band in the distal third. The kidney-shaped
marking is slightly distinct and smoky.
Each female of H. armigera can lay several hundred eggs, distributed on all
parts of the plants, flowers and fruit included. At optimal temperature, the larvae can
hatch after less than three days. They then pass through four instars over a three to
four-week period.
Damage: The voracious caterpillars of H. armigera can feed on leaves and stems, but
they show a strong preference for reproductive organs such as buds, inflorescences,
berries, pods, capsules etc. They bore into these parts, leaving large, round holes.
Older larvae often enter the plant tissue with the anterior part of their bodies only.
Young instars, however, may disappear completely inside, so they are sometimes not
discovered before the produce (e.g. tomatoes) is processed. Secondary infections by
fungi and bacteria are very common and they lead to rotting of fruits. Injury to
growing tips disturbs normal plant development; maturity may be delayed, and fruits
are often dropped. So in cotton for example, attacked blooms will frequently open
prematurely and stay fruitless: when the bolls are damaged, some will fall off, and
those that remain either fail to produce lint entirely, or they produce lint of inferior
quality.
Control: Useful non-chemical contribution to Integrated Weed Management. Careful
tilling and removing harvest residues will expose the pupae to sun and predators, and
can thereby significantly reduce the pest's population density.
2. Pyrilla perpusilla
Biology: This insect is a serious pest of sugarcane in northern India where it also
occasionally feeds on maize, millets, rice, barley, oats, sorghum, bajra and wild
grasses. Adult hoppers are straw coloured to brownish, with a pointed snout bearing
piercing and sucking mouth parts. Adults are active fliers, migrating from one crop to
another and breed throughout the year. Eggs are light yellowish in colour, oval, one
mm long and laid on the lower surface of the leaf. Nymphs are initially greenish, later
turn pale brownish, wingless.

Damage: Both adults and nymphs suck the cell sap of succulent leaves of sugarcane
by their rostrum. As a result the leaves turn pale yellow. They secrete a sweet sticky
transparent liquid known as honey dew which attracts the harmful fungi resulting into
a good growth of black shooty mould due to which the photosynthesis is affected and
hence productivity also. Because of the attack of this pest the quality and quantity of
sugar is affected.
Control: The egg masses should be collected and destroyed by burning, burying or
spraying phenyl water. The pest can be controlled by spraying 0.05% of parathion,
malathion, thiodon, fenitrothion or rogor. Dusting the plants with 10% Aldrin or
dieldrin also helps.
3. Papilio demoleus
Biology: This is a common pest of all citrus plants. Adult is a large butterfly and has
prominent black and yellow markings on the wings. They are active fliers and found
throughout the year in plains. Eggs are small, round, smooth, yellowish and laid singly
glued on to the tender leaves. They hatch in 3-6 days. First three instars of the larvae
resemble bird droppings as they are brownish-black in colour, with one or two white
patches. Last two instars are green in colour, sometimes with greyish markings.
Pupation takes place on the plant. Pupa, which is called chrysalis, greenish to brown in
colour, resembles a twisted leaf and remains attached to a branch with a fine silken
thread. Pupal period is 8-15 days.

Damage: Larvae are voracious feeders of tender leaves and defoliate the trees. They
eat leaves from margin inwards, leaving the larger veins intact. Younger plants cannot
withstand defoliation and die.
Control: Handpicking and destruction of the larvae which are so prominent on the
leaves helps to save the plants in nurseries. Dusting the trees with sodium fluosilicate
or BHC 5% or spraying malathion, endosulfan, parathion, fentrothion 0.02% or lead
arsenate 0.25% effectively controls the pests orchards.
Spraying spores of Bacillus thuringiensis gives high mortality of caterpillars.
4. Callosobruchus chinensis
Biology: It is commonly called pulse beetle. A pest of pulses, cowpea, soybean, gram,
pigeon pea, lablab etc. Cosmopolitan in the tropics and subtropics of the world. Adult
beetle is 3-4 mm long, female being larger, brownish in colour, broader at shoulders
and rounded posteriorly. Adults show sexual dimorphism. Males possess deeply
emarginated or indented eyes and prominently serrate antennae, while in female these
characters are not distinctly marked. Fecundity is about 100 eggs per female. Eggs are
whitish, elongated and stuck on the grains or on pods and sometimes on the surface of
the container. Grubs are scarabeiform or eruciform, plump and with short legs and
yellowish in colour. First instar larvae bear functional legs and a pair of thoracic plates
to facilitate boring into the seeds. They feed on the inner contents of the grain and may
damage several grains during development. Completion of life cycle takes 4-5 weeks
and there may be 6-7 overlapping generations in a year.

Damage: Both larvae and adults cause damage to the grains. They bite holes in the
grains to enter inside and feed on kernel, damaging several grains in the process. As
the beetles can actively fly, the infestation can start in the fields, where the beetles
deposit their eggs on the pods.
Control: Callosobruchus spp. may be controlled by fumigation treatment with
phosphine Intercropping maize with cowpeas, and not harvesting crops late
significantly reduced infestation by C. maculatus Good store hygiene plays an
important role in limiting infestation by these species. The removal of infested residues
from last season's harvest is essential, as is general hygiene. Solarization (or drying
and heating) can be used to control infestations of C. maculatus without affecting seed
germination.
5. Sitophilus oryzae
Biology: It is commonly called the rice weevil. This is primarily a pest of rice but
occasionally attacks wheat, corn, jowar, flour, beans, dry fruits and biscuits. Adults are
2-3 mm long dark brown weevils, with four faint yellow spots on the elytra. Body is
punctured with minute pits. Adults do not fly but try to crawl away when disturbed.
Their longevity can be up to 5 months. Eggs are whitish, oval, 0.7 mm long. Females
chew a small depression on the surface of rice grain, lay an egg in it and seal it with a
gelatinous fluid for protection. Grubs make their way into seed to feed on kernel. They
are plump,3-4 mm long, legless, dirty white in colour with a brownish head. Pupation
takes place inside the grain. Pupa is light yellowish but later turns dark brown. Adult
emerges by cutting a hole in the grain.
Damage: Larva as well as the adult cause damage to
grains. Larvae feed inside the seed and make in
hollow and exit by making a circular hole on the
surface. Adults can damage several seeds by cutting
an irregularly lined circular hole, through which they
feed on the kernel.
Control: Good store hygiene plays an important role in limiting infestation by S.
oryzae he removal of infested residues from last season's harvest is essential. Grain
may be protected by the admixture of insecticide. Sitophilus spp. have a low
susceptibility to synthetic pyrethroids but are readily killed by organophosphorous
compounds such as fenitrothion and pirimiphos-methyl.
6. Tribolium castaneum
Biology: It is commonly called red flour beetle. It is a worldwide pest of stored
products, particularly food grains. They are cosmopolitan in distribution. Larval and
adult both the stages are found infesting and causing damage. The adults are reddish
brown and are very active and survive in moderately cold winter in unheated buildings
and often live for 2 years in adult stage during which period the fertilized female
produces eggs. Eggs hatch into larva which are reddish yellow in colour which after 6
to 7 moultings change into pupae from which the adults arise.
Damage: These beetles cause serious damage in monsoon period. They heavily
damage flour in the mills but sometimes damage the grains in store. Both the adult and
larva are infective stages.
Damage: These beetles cause serious
damage in monsoon period. They heavily
damage flour in the mills but sometimes
damage the grains in store. Both the adult
and larva are infective stages.
Control: Flour mills should be kept clean
and dry. The infested portion of the flours
should be removed. The adults or its other
life stages should be removed from stores
or go downs
Insects of Medical Importance
1. Pediculus humanus corporis:
Commonly known as body louse, it is the
blood sucking ectoparasite of man and is cosmopolitan in distribution. It is found in
the hairs of the armpits, clothes and garments. The asults are wingless, flattened,
greyish white insects. It is comparatively larger then the head louse (Pediculus
humanus capitis).
Medical Importance: They suck the blood, cause
annoyance, itching and irritation and transmit
certain diseases.
Epidemic typhus: This disease is caused by a
PPLO, Ricketsia prowazeki, which multiplies in
the gut of lice. Spores are released through faeces
within 5 days of infection and can remain viable for 4 months in the dry conditions.
They get into the human system through contact with blood, through wounds,
conjunctive or by inhalation into lungs. The disease spreads in epidemic form and is
capable of causing 100% fatality. Reservoir hosts are sheep and goats.
Trench fever: This is caused by Ricketsia quintana. The disease was common among
soldiers during the world war II, when soldiers had to spend several days trapped in
trenches and lice transmitted the disease in epidemic form. The mode of transmission
is similar to the epidemic typhus.
Relapsing fever: This disease is transmitted by a spirochaet, Borrelia recurrentis
which breeds in the haemolymph of the louse and escapes when the louse is crushed or
dies due to the parasite. It gets into the human blood through wounds or scratches. This
disease spread in great epidemic form during the World War I and II.
Local urticaria and itching: This is also called the Vagabond disease. Itching, rashes
and discoloration of the skin takes place due to the allergic reaction to the bites and
blood sucking by lice.
Control: Cleanliness and hygiene eradicates lice. In case of severity of infestation,
clean shaving of head brings relief. Application of kerosene mixed with olive oil in
equal ratio on the head kills lice. Lindane ointment, malathion (Lycil) and Mediker
shampoo (also contains malathion) or any insecticide mixed with oil kills all lice on
head. The application has to be repeated every week to kill nymphs emerging from
eggs. Body lice can be controlled by steaming or boiling of clothes and bedding or
rinsing clothes in weak insecticide solution.
2. Mosquitoes: Anopheles, Culex, Aedes.
Mosquitoes are cosmopolitan in distribution. They are nocturnal in habit and are found
in abundance in damp, marshy lands near stagnant water. Only female mosquitoes are
adapted to suck the blood of human beings and function as carrier of viral, protozoan
and nematode diseases.
Culex mosquitoes serve as the vectors for filariasis or elephantiasis. This disease is
caused by the nematode parasite, Wuchereria bancrofti. It is commonly known as
filarial worm. It is found in the lymphatic vessels and lymph glands of man. The
female worms give birth to living embryos known as microfilariae. The microfilariae
normally circulate at night (10 to 2 am) in the peripheral blood. At that time they are
ingested by the mosquito along with blood, the mosquito is not just a mechanical
carrier of the parasite. Developmental changes take place in the body of the parasite.
When the infected mosquito next bites another person, the larvae penetrate the
superficial skin to find their way into the lymphatic vessels, and attain sexual maturity.
In severe infection the adults cause blocking of lymphatic system which results in the
enlargement of legs, arms, scrotum, and mammary glands. It is known as
elephantiasis.
Anopheles. Adults are dull whitish in colour having wings with blackish spots and
dark veins. They make no noise while flying. There may be scattered scales on the
abdomen. Thorax without any markings on the dorsal side and scutellum not lobed and
has uniformly distributed hairs on its posterior margin. Maxillary palps in both sexes
are equal to proboscis but in male they are clubbed at the tip. Adult in resting position
makes an angle of 45 degrees against the surface. Anopheles mosquitoes are best
known for spreading malaria, although they can transmit other diseases. They are
active between sunrise and sunset, and can be found both indoors and outdoors. The
females feed on both humans and animals, but some species have a preference for one
over the other; species that favour humans pose the greatest risk for transmitting
malaria.
Another type of mosquito, Aedes transmits yellow fever through a virus.
Aedes: This is called zebra mosquito as it has black and white bands on the abdomen
and legs. The Aedes mosquitoes are the carriers of many viral diseases including Zika,
dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever, and Rift Valley disease. The Aedes mosquitoes
can be identified by the distinctive black and white markings on their bodies and legs.
Unlike most other mosquitoes, Aedes mosquitoes are active and bite only during the
daytime, with peak activity during the early morning and in the evening before dusk.
There are two specific species of Aedes that are important transmitters of viruses –
Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Aedes aegypti, also known as the yellow fever
mosquito, is found in urban areas, is active both indoors and outdoors, and has a
preference for humans as the source of its blood meal. Aedes albopictus, commonly
referred to as the Asian tiger mosquito, is mostly associated with areas of vegetation
and is found primarily outdoors; the female will bite domestic and wild animals, as
well as humans. Because the Aedes aegypti mosquitoes live near and prefer to feed on
people, they are more likely to spread viral diseases than are the Aedes albopictus
mosquitoes.

Medical Importance: These groups of mosquitoes cause irritation during biting, lead
to allergy and suck blood. But their main role is in transmission of number of diseases.
Chikungunya virus causes a disease that, while rarely fatal, can cause debilitating joint
pain that can last for weeks. Typical symptoms include fever and rash, as well as pain.
The virus, which is classified as an alphavirus, is similar to dengue virus. The two
viruses produce many of the same symptoms and both are carried by the Aedes
mosquitoes, primarily Aedes aegypti.
Dengue virus causes dengue fever, a disease characterized by high fever,
headache, joint pain, and rash. A more severe form, dengue hemorrhagic fever, can
include bleeding and breathing difficulty and is fatal in some cases. There are four
types of dengue virus, and they belong to a class of viruses known as flavi viruses –
the family that also includes the West Nile, yellow fever, and Zika viruses. Dengue,
transmitted predominantly by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, is found in more than 100
countries.
Yellow fever virus most commonly causes fever, headache, muscle pain, and
nausea in those individuals who develop symptoms (many do not); these symptoms
can initially be mistaken for malaria. The virus, classified as a flavi virus, is generally
transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, the reason that these mosquitoes are also
known as yellow fever mosquitoes.
Zika virus, the most recent of these mosquito-borne viruses to emerge, causes no
symptoms or only a mild disease that may involve fever, rash, and joint pain in most
people who become infected. However, the disease can cause severe neurological
defects in the developing foetuses of pregnant women who are infected with Zika
virus. Zika virus is classified as a Flavi virus and is transmitted principally by the
Aedes aegypti mosquito.
West Nile virus can cause death in humans and different bird species. Most
people (80%) do not develop any symptoms. Most of the remaining individuals who
become infected develop West Nile fever, which is associated with fevers, aches, and
nausea. A small percentage (about 1 in 150 infected persons) develops West Nile
encephalitis, a more serious disease that produces high fever, neck stiffness,
convulsions, muscle weakness, paralysis, and possibly death. West Nile virus belongs
to the flavi virus family of viruses. It is transmitted principally by Culex mosquitoes.
Birds are the reservoir for the virus and mosquitoes acquire the virus when they feed
on infected birds.
Culex (female) is the vector of filarial worm Wuchereria bancrofti, which causes
filariasis in humans. Different species of anopheles mosquito transmit malaria causing
protozoan called plasmodium.
MOSQUITO CONTROL:
Mosquito control efforts have not been successful because of the ability of mosquitoes
to develop resistance against insecticides very quickly and their capacity to inhabit a
variety of environmental conditions. The following measures are generally adopted to
reduce mosquito populations.
Personal preventive measures: Use of mosquito nets is an effective method to
prevent adults from biting and transmitting malaria. Application of mosquito repellent
chemicals, such as citronella oil, dimethylphthalate, odomos cream or pyrethrum
cream also prevent mosquitoes from sucking blood. Mosquito repelling fumigants, e.g.
tortoise mosquito coil contains pyrethrum in it and Good night mats or All out liquids
contain synthetic pyrethroids such as deltamethrin, decamethrin and allethrin. They
effectively repel and confuse mosquitoes.
Anti-larval measures: Removal of breeding places effectively reduces mosquito
population. Broken pots, old tyres, tins and other containers should be removed from
the surroundings as they serve as breeding places for Aedes. Coolers and overhead
water tanks should be periodically cleaned or treated with potassium permagnate to
kill the larvae. Small water bodies, ditches and ponds that cannot be filled should be
sprayed with light diesel or petroleum oil that makes a thin film on the water surface
and clogs respiratory siphons of larvae. Use of Paris green (copper aceto-arsenite) also
kills larval and pupal stages. Biological control of larvae and pupae in ponds has been
achieved by releasing larvivorous fishes, such as the native Gambusia and
Nothobranchius guntheri introduced by CIBC from Africa. These fishes actively feed
on the larvae and can aestivate in mud when ponds dry up in the summer months.
Naiads of dragonflies and damselflies are also effective predators of mosquito larvae
and pupae.
Anti-adult measures: -Trapping of adults by hanging black cloths to serve as hiding
places during day time and then killing the adults by spraying insecticide should be
done daily. UV electrocuting traps should be used to attract and kill adults. Destruction
of tall grasses and bushes serve as resting places for mosquitoes in day time and hence
should be removed from the surrounding areas.
Use of malathion and endosulfan aerosols in the colonies periodically has been
effective in reducing their populations. Aerial sprays of pyrethrum, carbaryl,
carbofuran, arprocarb mixed with mineral oil are still effective in killing adults.
Synthetic pyrethroids are quite effective and new chemicals used against mosquitoes
but are prohibitively expensive.
3. Xenopsyllacheopis
Fleas are small wingless insects, 2-3 mm long, with highly sclerotised, laterally
compressed bodies and reddish-brown colour. Antennae short, stout, pectinate or
clubbed and concealed in a groove. Mouth parts are modified for piercing and sucking.
Legs adapted for clinging with curved claws. Hind leg longer, modified for jumping.
The Oriental rat flea (Xenopsyllacheopis), also known as the tropical rat flea, is a
parasite of rodents, primarily of the genus Rattus, and is a primary vector for bubonic
plague and murine typhus.
Medical importance: Fleas transmit plague that is caused by the safety pin bacillus
called Yersinia pestis or Pasturella pestis. The disease is caused in man as well as in
rats and produces three types of symptoms in man.
1. Bubonic plague. The bacillus infects lymphatic system, causing swelling and pain
in the lymph glands but no fever occurs. Rats also suffer from similar symptoms.
2. Septicemic plague. Infection spreads to the blood vascular system causing fever.
There is headache and pain in the back. Sudden chilliness, blood-shot eyes, rapid
pulse, thick speech and high fever are other symptoms. In the case of prolonged illness
spleen enlarges and becomes brick-red in colour and liver is also enlarged. Comma
and death can occur due to heart failure in about a week.
3. Pneumonic plague. In this case bacillus multiplies in the lungs and pleural cavity,
causing pneumonia-like symptoms. Yellowish fluid fills the lungs and pleural cavity,
causing excessive coughing and heavy breathing. Infection can spread directly from
man to man through droplets release during coughing. This is the most dangerous type
of plague as it spreads very fast by droplet infection, particularly in high population
density areas and brings about quick deaths.
Murine typhus: This is another disease transmitted by Xenopsylla cheopis. It is a mild
typhoid fever caused by the PPLO, Rickettsia mooseri. The causative organism
multiplies in the gut of flea and is excreted through faeces. Man gets infected either by
contamination of wounds by the flea faeces or by inhalation of dust containing faeces.
Some fleas act as intermediate hosts for the tape worms like, Dipylidium caninum and
Hymenolepis diminuta.
Control of fleas: Control of rats is an effective method of controlling fleas. Trapping,
baiting and fumigation can eradicate rats. Cyanogas fumigation kills not only rats but
also all stages of fleas in the rat burrows. Fumigation should be done every 2-3
months. Construction of rat proof godown having metalled doors and meshed windows
is also an effective method to keep the rats away from human dwellings. Dusting the
houses, floors, godowns and other places frequented by rats should be done frequently
using residual insecticides such as BHC, endosulfan, dieldrin, aldrin etc. This will kill
all stages of fleas as they breed in dust and abandoned corners.
Patients suffering from plague can be treated with streptomycin injections or oral
doses of antibiotics such as tetracycline, sulphadiazene, chloramphenicol, doxycycline,
azithromycin etc. given two or three times in a day.
2.2 Insect pests
Insect pests of crops
S. PEST DESCRIPTION
NO

1 EMMALOCERADEPRESSELLA IT IS A MAJOR SUGARCANE PEST,

(SUGARCANE ROOT BORER) THE CATERPILLAR LARVA OF
THE MOTH FEED VORACIOUSLY
ON THE STEM BELOW THE SOIL
SURFACE RESULTING INTO
FORMATION OF DEAD HEARTS.
THE YOUNG SUGARCANES DIE
AND THE OLDER ONES DRY AND
FALL.
2 CHILOINFUSCATELLUS ITS MAIN HOST IS SUGARCANE,
(SUGARCANE SHOOT BORER) BUT IS ALSO FOUND FEEDING ON
BAJRA AND MAIZE. THE
CATERPILLAR LARVA OF THIS
MOTH CAUSE DAMAGE TO
SUGARCANE RESULTING INTO
THE FORMATION OF DEAD
HEARTS
3 TRYPORYZANIVELLA ITS MAIN HOST IS SUGARCANE.
(SUGARCANE TOP BORER) THE CATERPILLAR OF THIS
MOTH FEEDS ON GROWING BUDS
AND BORES UP TO 4 TO 5 NODES
OF THE TOP SHOOT RESULTING
IN THE DRYING OF THE LEAVES
FORMING DEAD HEART.
4 LEPTOCORISAVARICORNIS ITS MAIN HOST IS PADDY. IT IS A
(RICE BUG OR RICE GANDHI MAJOR PEST OF RICE AND
BUG) ATTACKS THE PADDY AT THE
MILKY STAGE. BOTH NYMPHS
AND THE ADULT SUCK THE JUICE
FROM TH DEVELOPING GRAINS
AS A RESULT OF WHICH MATURE
GRAINS ARE NOT FORMED.
5 HIEROGLYPHUS IT IS A MAJOR PEST OF PADDY
(KHARIF GRASSHOPPER) CROP. BOTH ADULT AND NYMPH
DAMAGE PADDY CROP BY
FEEDING ON LEAVES AND
SHOOTS
Insect pests of vegetables
S. PEST DESCRIPTION
NO
1 RAPHIDOPALPAFOVEICOLIS IT FEEDS ON CUCURBITACEOUS
(THE RED PUMPKIN BEETLE) VEGETABLES LIKE PUMPKIN,
MELON, CUCUMBER ETC. THE
ADULT BEETLES AS WELL AS
GRUBS BOTH ARE DESTRUCTIVE
STAGES, THEY FEED ON THE
LEAVES FLOWER AND BUDS OF
THE YOUNGER PLANTS.
2 PIERIS BRASSICAE THEY FEED ON CABBAGE,
(CABBAGE BUTTERFLY) CAULIFLOWER, TURNIP ETC.
CATERPILLAR LARVA IS THE
ONLY DESTRUCTIVE STAGE.
THEY FEED VORACIOUSLY ON
PLANT LEAVES RESULTING INTO
COMPLETE DESTRUCTION OF
PLANT.
3 EPILACHNA THESE BEETLES FEED ON
(THE HADA BEETLE) DIFFERENT SOLANACEOUS
VEGETABLES LIKE BRINJAL,
POTATO, TOMATO AND BITTER
GROUND. THE ADULTS AND
GRUBS BOTH FEED ON LEAVES
OF THE PLANT RESULTING INTO
COMPLETE DEFOLIATION.
4 DACUSCUCURBITAE IT IS A REGULAR PEST OF
(MELON FRUIT-FLY) CASTOR. CATERPILLAR LARVA
IS THE DAMAGING STAGE
WHICH KILLS THE TERMINAL
SHOOTS.
Insect pests of oilseeds
S. PEST DESCRIPTION
NO

1 ATHELIALUGENS ITS MAIN HOST IS MUSTARD.

(MUSTARD SAWFLY) THE DAMGE IS CAUSED BY THE
CATERPILLAR LARVAL STAGE
WHO FEEDS ON LEAVES AND
SHOOTS
2 BAGRADACRUCIFERARUM IT FEEDS ON MUSTARD. NYMPH
(PAINTED BUG) AND ADULT BOTH ARE
DESTRUCTIVE STAGES WHICH
SUCK CELL SAP FROM LEAVES
AND DEVELOPING PODS.
3 ACHERONTIASTYX IT IS A PEST OF SESAMUM. THE
(TIL HAWK MOTH) LARVA FEED VORACIOUSLY ON
THE LEAVES AND DEFOLIATE
THE PLANT.
4 DICHOROCISPUNCTIFERALIS IT IS A REGULAR PEST OF
(CASTOR SHOOT AND CASTOR. CATERPILLAR LARVA
CAPSULE BORER) IS THE DAMAGING STAGE
WHICH KILLS THE TERMINAL
SHOOTS.

Insect pests of Coffee

S. PEST DESCRIPTION
NO
1 XYLOSANDRUS COMPACTUS THE ADULT AND LARVA BOTH
(COFFEE SHOOT HOLE BORER) CAUSE INFESTATION. THEY FORM
TUNNEL INSIDE THE BRANCHES
OF COFFEE RESULTING INTO
WILTING, DEFOLIATION AND
ULTIMATELY PLANT DIES.
2 XYLOTRECHUSQUADRIPES THE LARVA CAUSES
(COFFEE STEM BORER) INFESTATION WHICH BORES
INTO COFFEE STEM FORMING
TUNNELS INSIDE THE SHOOT.
THE INFESTATION CAUSES
KILLING OF YOUNG PLANTSAND
THE OLDER PLANTS BECOME
UNHEALTHY.
Insect pests of tea
S.NO PEST DESCRIPTION

1 HELIOPELTISTHEIVORA BOTH NYMPHS AND ADULTS

(TEA MOSQUITO BUG) ARE DAMGING STAGE. THEY
SUCK SAP FROM, LEAVES
BUDS AND TENDER STEMS

2 ANDRACABIPUNCTATA LARVA IS THE DAMAGING

(BUNCH CATERPILLAR) STAGE. IT FIRST FEEDS ON
LEAF SURFACE BY
SCRAPPING, LATER FEEDS ON
LEAF MARGINS AND THEY
REMAIN CLUSTERED IN
BUNCHES ON BRANCHES.
3 BISTONSUPPRERSARIA DAMAGING STAGE IS LARVA.
(TEA SEMILOOPER) IT FEEDS ON LEAF SURFACE
BY SCRAPPING AND LATER
FEEDS ON LEAF MARGINS.

Insect pest management

Of all demands of man, food is of prime importance. But the fact is that one third of
the food produce is lost to pest and diseases world over. Probably man’s struggle
against pests of crops is as old as agriculture itself. So, the entomologists and farmers
together must evolve methods to develop and apply the effective control measures
against insect pests in order to save the crops in the field as well as under storage.
Insect control programme in its broadest sense includes everything which makes the
survival of insects difficult and at the same time checks their multiplication. For this
purpose, the insecticides has revelutionised the protection technology and with the
help of insecticides most of the pest population is being managed effectively in very
short period. But these insecticides have not been found much effective against fruit
flies, borers and polyphagous pests. The control of pests can be broadly divided into
natural and applied control. The natural control agencies do not depend upon the
activities of human beings and cannot be influenced much by man. The success of
applied control depends completely upon human beings for their application. If the
population of insects is not being controlled by natural agencies like climatic factors,
topographic factors and natural enemies, then the man-made efforts are being applied
to check the growth of pests. The various forms of applied control areas.
1. Mechanical Control
Destruction of the pest by mechanical means such as burning, trapping, protective
screens and barriers or use of temperature and humidity is often useful.
a. HANDPICKING: When the infestation is low, the pest is conspicuous and labor is
cheap, the pest stages can be destroyed by mechanical means. Eggs of grasshoppers
can be destroyed by hand. Alfalfa aphids can be killed by using chain drags on plants
less than 10 inches long. Locust nymphs which are congregating can be beaten by
sticks and brooms. European corn borer in the stalk can be killed by running the corn
stalks through the stalk shredder. Handpicking of sugarcane borer eggs, cabbage
butterfly eggs, sawfly larvae on mustard, Papilio larvae from citrus plants and stages of
Epilachna beetle is very effective, especially in small areas.
b. BURNING: Controlled burning is sometimes recommended to control certain
pests. Weedy fallows harboring European corn borers are burnt to destroy
overwintering pest stages. To eradicate the pink bollworm dried cotton stalks are piled
and dried. Trash and garbage, weeds etc. are collected and burnt to destroy pest stages.
Flamethrowers are used to burn locust hoppers and adults that are congregating and
marching.
c. TRAPPING: Trapping is popular method to lure insects to bait, light etc. to kill
them. Traps usually fail to give adequate crop protection but prove useful to know
population build up and are convenient to collect insect samples. Many trap designs
have been developed room time to time to suit different insect species. Hopper-dozers
were formerly used to collect grasshoppers. In these the insects after hitting the back of
the machine fall to the bottom and then through a narrow opening collect into a box.
d. BARRIERS: In certain instances, barriers may prevent insects from infesting the
crop. Cloth screens over seedbeds protect the younger plants from insects, like flea
beetles, hoppers, armyworms etc. Metal collars around young plants protect them from
cutworms. Trench barriers are used to stop chinch bugs, armyworms, locusts etc.
Metal or concrete barriers are used against termites. Barrier spraying of residual
insecticides has become more popular against termites, locusts and several other
insects. Sticky bands applied around mango treetrunks during December-January
prevent the upward movement of mango mealy bugs, which upon hatching begin to
crawl up the trunk to reach the leaves.
e. TEMPERATURE CONTROL: Temperature extremes are fatal to insects. This
method is used against stored grain pests. Low temperatures that are enough to
dormancy can prevent damage. Low temperatures are utilized for the control of insects
in flourmills and warehouses. Exposure to subzero temperature for 24 hours is lethal to
most of the insects.
f. DRYING: Insects infesting stored grains require certain amount of moisture to
develop. Neither the rice weevils nor the granary weevils can survive moisture
contents as low as 8.0%. Drying the grains either in the sun or by heat blowers reduces
infestation of majority of stored grain insects.
g. RADIATION: Gamma radiation kills all stages of the pests in storage conditions.
This is a common method employed to kill insect stages during export or imports of
huge quantities of grains, fruits and vegetables.
h. ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS: Moths are often sensitive to bats’ ultrasonic
signals and quickly escape from the area. Imitation of the bat’s echolocation system
helps in scaring away the lepidopterous insect pests from the area.
2. Cultural Control
Cultural control includes such methods of planting, growing and harvesting crops,
which will reduce crop damage. Slight modification in the crop rotation, weed control,
disposal of crop remnants, resistant varieties, time of planting and harvesting may
prove important in combating some insect pests.
Control by cultural means can be achieved by the following methods:
a. By resistant varieties
b. By ploughing
c. By planting practices
d. By harvesting practices
e. By crop sanitation
f. By isolation from the secondary host plants
g. By closed seasons
h. By crop rotation
i. Pasturing
j. Fertilizing
k. Flooding
l. Trap crops
3. Biological Control
Biological control is the action of natural enemies (parasites, predators and pathogens)
in maintaining another organism’s population density at a lower level than would
occur in their absence.
The importance of biological control has lately been enhanced due to the fact
that overwhelming use of insecticides has led to the resurgence of the pests and
resistance to insecticides by the pests like mosquitoes, houseflies and stored grain
pests. Biological control is based on the utilization of ecological principles; hence it is
frequently called Applied Ecology. Maintenance of the balance of nature is an
important aspect of biological control.
Natural Biological Control: includes role of natural enemies to contain pest
populations in an undisturbed environment.
Applied Biological Control: includes manipulation of biotic factors (natural enemies)
by man to reduce the population of a pest species.
Pests of foreign origin usually do not cause serious damage in their native
country because there they are kept under check by natural enemies. But when
accidentally introduced into a new country they multiply unchecked and become
serious pests. Role of biological control is to find out natural enemies of such pests and
introduce them in the areas of pest outbreak. Against pests of domestic origin also
exotic natural enemies of species closely related to the indigenous pest are imported
and released.
Applied biological control is practiced in the following three ways:
a) Importation and colonization of exotic natural enemies
b) Conservation and inundative releases of indigenous natural enemies
c) Manipulation of natural enemies
Q: -Explain the Integrated Pest Management (IPM)?
It is that method of pest control, which utilizes all suitable techniques of pest control to
reduce pest populations and maintain them below economic injury level.
IPM is also defined as a stable system of crop protection, which based on the
ecological relations within the crop and the environment, combines several methods of
pest control in such a way that the pest is prevented from causing economic injury.
The idea of integrated control emerged independently in California and in
Netherlands, where it was first known as harmonic control. The term pest management
arose in Canada and Australia. It is also called protective management and was
originally coined to define the blending of biological control agents with chemical
control because these techniques used independently, either failed to produce
satisfactory results or caused environmental problems. Therefore, need arose to
consolidate these two methods and also other possible means into a unified programme
to manage pest population so that economic injury is avoided.
Components of Integrated Pest Management
Various components and techniques that can be utilized in Integrated Pest
Management programmes are as follows:
a. Cultural control: Use of resistant varieties of crops is a promising technique in
IPM. Moderately to low level of resistance is best integrated with chemical and
biocontrol agents. Crop rotation and sanitation are also used to reduce the pest
population to lower levels.
b. Mechanical control: Use of screens or barriers or handpicking in nursery stage of
the crops and use of light traps to kill egg-laying adults can bring down the population
for the other methods to be effective.
c. Biological control: Natural enemies are commonly utilized in IPM programmes.
Emphasis is given to protection and augmentation of indigenous natural enemies and
recolonisation of those that have been wiped out due to indiscriminate use of
insecticides.
d. Chemical control: Minimal use of insecticides is recommended in IPM. Rule of the
thumb is not to use insecticides unless absolutely necessary. Application methods that
do not bring insecticides in contact with natural enemies are favoured in IPM
programmes
e. Regulatory methods: Plant and animal quarantines by the government and
collective eradication and suppression in large areas help in providing long-lasting
management. International efforts to suppress noxious pests like locusts have proved
fruitful. In most of the cases, chemical, biological and varietal resistances are
combined to manage the population of pest species.
Role of biological control in IPM
Being safe, permanent and economical, biocontrol should be of primary consideration
in any IPM programme and should not be taken up only when other methods fail. In
IPM biological control need not achieve complete success, since other methods
combined also contribute in achieving the goal.
There are three major ways to integrate biological control in IPM programmes:
1. conservation and augmentation of natural enemies already available,
2. Importation and colonization of exotic natural enemies and
3. Mass culture and release of indigenous as well as exotic natural enemies.
Conservation is done by using selective insecticides to which natural enemies
are resistant or use of soil application methods or habitat management like planting of
nectar producing flowering plants in the vicinity of the crop. Cultural practices which
maintain diversity of crops in the area are usually beneficial for the natural enemies.
Intercropping of selected crops is known to augment parasitic activity. Integration of
moderately resistant crop varieties with natural enemies is currently a popular
component of pest management.
Role of insecticides in IPM
When pest populations reach above tolerable levels, insecticides provide immediate
control. But great majority of insecticides are broadly toxic and therefore ecologically
disruptive. Great need for IPM is to develop selective or even specific insecticides
which will have negligible effect on non-target species. Modification of dosage, times
of application, formulations and placement of material can be utilized to increase
selectivity of chemicals. Successful use of pesticides of mites illustrates bright future
for selectivity. Use of pheromones, hormones, repellents, antifeedants and sterilants
are selective in their action and hence must be encouraged.
Role of varietal resistance in IPM
Use of resistant varieties is a less utilized concept. A low plant resistance is better
since it does not impose too much stress on the pest species to change its behavior and
develop biotypes. It also harbors natural enemies at low pest densities. A highly
resistant crop, on the other hand, wipes out not only the pest species but also the
specific natural enemy fauna from the area.
An interesting integration of resistance, cultural practice and chemical control is the
planting of trap crop of a susceptible variety or attractive crop on the borders and main
crop in the middle, and then spraying only on the susceptible variety where the pest
would naturally congregate.
An integration of resistance and biocontrol was shown in California by planting
moderately resistant variety of barley and sorghum which complemented the activity
of the parasite Lysiphlebustes taceipes in reducing green bug (Schizaphisgraminum)
population. Advantages of varietal resistance in IPM programmes include: its
specificity, easy compatibility with other methods, cumulative effect is carried through
generations over a long period and non-disturbance of ecosystem.
Examples of Integrated Pest Management
A. Cotton pest control in Peru
B. Integrated Pest Management in Paddy
C. Integrated Pest Management in Sugarcane
D. Integrated control of locusts
UNIT-III CATTLE AND POULTRY FARMING
1. Varieties of cattle
2. Principles and management of poultry breeding
3. Processing and preservation of eggs
4. Diseases of poultry

3.1 Varieties of cattle

Cattle breeds fall into two main types, which are regarded as either two closely related
species, or two subspecies of one species. Bos indicus (or Bos taurus indicus) cattle,
commonly called zebu, are adapted to hot climates and originated in the tropical parts
of the world such as sub-Saharan Africa, India, China, and Southeast Asia. Bos taurus
(or Bos taurustaurus), typically referred to as "taurine" cattle, are generally adapted to
cooler climates and include almost all cattle breeds originating from Europe, the
Mediterranean region, and northern Asia. Both species were likely present since
ancient times in northern Africa and the Middle East, where both natural and human-
caused hybridization likely occurred. Today, Taurus/indicus hybrids are widely bred in
many warmer regions, combining characteristics of both the ancestral types (such as
the Sanga cattle of Africa, or Brangus [a pormoteau of Brahma and Angus] in warmer
regions of the United States).
In some parts of the world further species of cattle are found (both as wild and
domesticated animals), and some of these are related so closely to taurine and indicus
cattle that interspecies hybrids have been bred. Examples include the Dwarf Lulu cattle
of the mountains of Nepal with yak blood the Beefalo of North America with bison
genes, the Selembu breed of India and Bhutan with gayal genes. The Madura breed of
Indonesia may have banteng in its parentage. In addition to these fertile hybrids, there
are infertile crossings such as the male Dzo of Nepal, a cattle-yak crossing which is
bred for agricultural work - like the mule they have to be continually bred from the
parent species.
Indigenous dairy breeds of cattle
1. Gir: This breed is otherwise called as Bhadawari, Desan, Gujarati, Kathiawari,
Sorthi, and Surati. Originated in Gir forests of South Kathiawar in Gujarat also found
in Maharashtra and adjacent Rajasthan. Basic colours of skin are white with dark red
or chocolate-brown patches or sometimes black or purely red.
Horns are peculiarly curved, giving a ‘half-moon’ appearance. Milk yield ranges from
1200-1800 kgs per lactation. this bread is known for its hardiness and disease
resistance.
2. Red Sindhi: This breed is otherwise called as Red Karachi and Sindhi and Mahi.
Originated in Karachi and Hyderabad (Pakistan) regions of undivided India and also
reared in certain organized farms in our country. Colour is red with shades varying
from dark red to light, strips of white. Milk yield ranges from 1250 to 1800 kgs per
lactation. Bullocks despite lethargic and slow can be used for road and field work.
3. Sahiwal: Originated in Montgomery region of undivided India. This breed
otherwise known as Lola (loose skin), Lambi Bar, Montgomery, Multani, Teli. Best
indigenous dairy breed. Reddish dun or pale red in colour, sometimes flashed with
white patches. Heavy breed with symmetrical body having loose skin. The average
milk yield of this breed is between 1400 and 2500 kgs per lactation.
Indigenous Draught breeds of cattle
4. Hallikar
Originated from the former princely state of Vijayanagarm, presently part of
Karnataka. The colour is grey or dark grey. Compact, muscular and medium size
animal with prominent forehead, long horns and strong legs. The breed is best known
for its draught capacity and especially for its trotting ability.
5. Amritmahal: Originated in Hassan, Chikmagalur and Chitradurga district of
Karnataka. Amiritmahals are grey cattle but their shade varies from almost white to
near black. The muzzle, feat and tail are usually black. Horns are long and end in sharp
black points.
6. Khillari: Originated from Sholapur and Sitapur districts of Maharashtra. Closely
resembles Hallikar breed. Grey white in colour. Long horns turn forwards in a peculiar
fashion. The horns are generally black, sometimes pinkish. Bullocks are fast and
powerful.
7. Kangayam: Also known as kongu and konganad. Originated in Kangayam,
Dharapuram, Perundurai, Erode, Bhavani and part of Gobichettipalayam taluk of
Erode and Coimbatore district. Bulls are grey with dark colour in hump, fore and hind
quarters. The horns are spread apart, nearly straight with a slight curve backwards.
Cows are grey or white. The eyes are dark and prominent with black rings around
them. Moderate size with compact bodies.
8. Bargur: Found around Bargur hills in Bhavani taluk of Erode district in Tamilnadu.
Developed for work in uneven hilly terrains. Generally brown colour with white
markings. Animals are well built, compact and medium in size. Known for their speed
and endurance in trotting. Cautious in behaviour and tends to remain away from
strangers.
9. Umblachery: It is otherwise called as Jathimadu, Mottaimadu, Molaimadu,
Therkathimadu. Originated inThanjavur, Thiruvarur and Nagappattinam districts of
Tamil Nadu. Suitable for wet ploughing and known for their strength and sturdiness.
Umblachery calves are generally red or brown at birth with all the characteristic white
marking on the face, on limbs and tail. The legs have white markings below the hocks
like socks. The practice of dehorning of bullocks is peculiar in Umblachery cattle.
10. Pulikulam: This breed is commonly seen in cumbum valley of Madurai district in
Tamil Nadu. Also known as Jallikattumadu, kidaimadu, sentharai. Small in size,
usually grey or dark grey in colour. Welldeveloped hump. Mainly used for penning in
the field. Useful for ploughing. Presence of reddish or brownish spots in muzzle, eyes,
switch and back is the characteristic feature of this breed. Typical backward curving
horns of like Mysore type cattle. Breeds are active, useful draught animals but not fast
trotter.
11. Alambadi: Originated from Alambadi of Dharmapuri district in Tamilnadu. Grey
or dark grey in colour. White markings will be seen in forehead, limb and tail. Horns
are backward curving like Mysore cattle. Resembles Hallikar and also known as Betas.
It is useful in ploughing.
Indigenous Dual-purpose breeds of Cattle
12. Tharparkar: Originated in Tharparkar district (Pakistan) of undivided India and
also found in Rajasthan. Otherwise known as White Sindhi, Gray Sindhi and Thari.
They are medium sized, compact and have lyre-shaped horn. Body colour is white or
light grey. The bullocks are quite suitable for ploughing and casting and the cows yield
1800 to 2600 kgs of milk per lactation.
13. Hariana:
It was originated from Rohtak, Hisar, Jind and Gurgaon districts of Haryana and also
popular in Punjab, UP and parts of MP. Horns are small. The bullocks are powerful
work animals. Hariana cows are fair milkers yielding 600 to 800 kg of milk per
lactation.
14. Kankrej: It is otherwise called as Wadad or Waged, Wadhiar. Originated from
Southeast Rann of Kutch of Gujarat and adjoining Rajasthan (Barmer and Jodhpur
district). The horns are lyre-shaped. Colour of the animal varies from silver-grey to
iron-grey or steel black. The gait of Kankrej is peculiar called as 1 ¼ paces
(sawaichal). Kankrej is valued for fast, powerful, draught cattle. Useful in ploughing
and carting. The cows are good milkers, yielding about 1400 kgs per lactation.
15. Ongole: Otherwise known as Nellore. Home tract is Ongole taluk in Guntur
district of Andhra Pradesh. Large muscular breed with a well-developed hump.
Suitable for heavy draught work. White or light grey in colour. Average milk yield is
1000 kgs per lactation.
16. Krishna Valley: Originated from black cotton soil of the water shed of the river
Krishna in Karnataka and also found in border districts of Maharastra. Animals are
large, having a massive frame with deep, loosely built short body. Tail almost reaches
the ground. Generally grey white in colour with a darker shade on fore quarters and
hind quarters in male. Adults females are more whitish in appearance. The bullocks are
powerful animals useful for slow ploughing, and valued for their good working
qualities. The average yield is about 900 kgs per lactation.
Exotic dairy breeds of cattle
17. Jersey: Originated from Jersey Island, U.K. Smallest of the dairy types of cattle. In
India this breed has acclimatized well and is widely used in cross breeding with
indigenous cows. The typical colour of Jersey cattle is reddish fawn. Dished forehead;
compact and angular body. Economical producers of milk with 4.5% fat. Average milk
yield is 4500 kgs per lactation.
18. Holstein Friesian: Originated from the northern parts of Netherlands, especially in
the province of Friesland. Largest dairy breed and ruggedly built is shape and possess
large udder. Breeds have typical marking of black and white that make them easily
distinguishable. The average milk production of cow is 6000 to 7000 kgs per lactation.
19. Brown Swiss: The mountainous region of Switzerland is the place of origin of
Brown Swiss breed. Breeds are rugged in nature and good milk production. Average
milk yield is 5000 kgs per lactation. The Karan Swiss is the excellent crossbred cattle
obtained by crossing this breed with Sahiwal cattle at NDRI, Karnal.
20. Red Dane: Orginated in Denmark. Body colour of this Danish breed is red,
reddish brown or even dark brown. It is also a heavy breed; The lactation yield of Red
Dane cattle varies from 3000 to 4000 kgs.
21. Ayrshire: Origin is Ayrshire in Scotland and considered as most beautiful dairy
breed. These are very active animals but hard to manage. They do not produce as much
milk or butter fat (only 4%) as some of the other dairy breeds. The breed was also
known as Dunlop cattle or Cunningham cattle
Cross bred - Dairy Cat
22. Jersey cross: Jersey crosses are produced by upgrading/ cross breeding the non-
descript / Indigenous breeds of cows with Jersey breed semen. Jersey crosses are
suitable dairy animals for tropical plains of our country. They are medium sized, have
better heat tolerance than other exotic crosses and well adapted to our climate.
Depending on the milk production potential of our indigenous cows, the Jersey crosses
may show 2 to 3-fold increase in milk yield in the first generation.
3.2 Principles and management of poultry breeding
Poultry farming is the process of raising domesticated birds such as chickens, ducks,
turkeys and geese for the purpose of farming meat or eggs for food. Poultry - mostly
chickens - are farmed in great numbers. The poultry industry breeds chickens destined
for both commercial egg and meat production. Geneticists design special breeding
programs to select birds with the best characteristics for egg or meat production. This
selection process (called genetic selection or genetics) allows the industry to select
strains of birds which are produced very efficiently in intensive housing systems.
There are two main types of commercial chicken breeds: layers and meat (broiler)
chickens.
The principles of poultry husbandry
There are a number of requirements by which animals should be managed so that the
best performance is achieved in a way acceptable to those responsible for the care of
the animals and to the community generally. These requirements are the keys to good
management and may be used to test the management of a poultry enterprise in
relation to the standard of its management. These requirements are also called
Principles.
The importance of each Principle changes with the situation and thus the
emphasis placed on each may alter from place to place and from time to time. This
means that, while the Principles do not change, the degree of emphasis and method of
application may change. Every facet of the poultry operation should be tested against
the relevant principle(s).
The Principles of Poultry Husbandry are:
The quality and class of stock
If the enterprise is to be successful it is necessary to use stock known to be of good
quality and of the appropriate genotype for the commodity to be produced in the
management situation to be used. The obvious first decision is to choose meat type for
meat production and an egg type for egg production. However, having made that
decision, it is then necessary to analyse the management situation and market to select
a genotype that suits the management situation and/or produces a commodity suitable
for that market. A good example is that of brown eggshells. If the market requires eggs
to have brown shells, the genotype selected must be a brown shell layer. Another
example would be to choose a genotype best suited for use in a tropical environment.
The manager must know in detail the requirements of the situation and then select a
genotype best suited to that situation.
Good husbandry
The following are of major importance when considering the health, welfare and
husbandry requirements for a flock:
Confine the birds
Confining the birds provides a number of advantages:
• Provides a degree of protection from predators
• Reduces the labour costs in the management of the birds
• Increases the number of birds that can be maintained by the same labour force
• Reduces the costs of production
• Better organisation of the stocking program
• Better organisation management to suit the type and age of the birds housed
Importantly, the confinement of the birds at higher stocking densities has a number of
disadvantages also including:
1. Increases the risk of infectious disease passing from one bird to another
2. Increases the probability that undesirable behavioural changes may occur
3. Increases the probability of a significant drop in performance 4. Birds housed at
very high densities can often attract adverse comments
Protection from a harsh environment
A harsh environment is defined as the one that is outside of the comfort range of the
birds. In this context high and low temperature, high humidity in some circumstances,
excessively strong wind, inadequate ventilation and/or air movement and high levels
of harmful air pollutants such as ammonia are examples of a harsh environment. Much
effort is made in designing and building poultry houses that will permit the regulation
of the environment to a significant degree.
It is the responsibility of those in charge, and responsible for, the day-to-day
management of the birds that the environment control systems are operated as
efficiently as possible. To this end, those responsible require a good knowledge of the
different factors that constitute the environment and how they interact with each other
to produce the actual conditions in the house and, more importantly, what can be done
to improve the house environment.
Welfare needs
A successful poultry house has to satisfy the welfare needs of the birds which vary
with the class, age and housing system. Failure to satisfy these needs will, in many
cases, result in lower performance from the birds. These needs include:
• The provision of adequate floor space with enough headroom
• The provision of good quality food with adequate feeding space
• The provision of good quality water with adequate drinking space
• The opportunity to associate with flock mates
• The elimination of anything that may cause injury
• The elimination of all sources of unnecessary harassment
The maintenance of good health
The presence of disease in the poultry flock is reflected by inferior performance. It is
essential that the flock is in good health to achieve their performance potential. There
are three elements of good health management of a poultry flock. These are:
1. The prevention of disease
2. The early recognition of disease
3. The early treatment of disease
Prevention of disease
Preventing the birds from disease is a much more economical way of health
management than waiting for the flock to become diseased before taking appropriate
action. There are a number of factors that are significant in disease prevention. These
are:
1. Application of a stringent farm quarantine program:
• The isolation of the farm/sheds from all other poultry.
• The control of vehicles and visitors.
• The introduction of day-old chicks only onto the farm.
• The prevention of access to the sheds by all wild birds and all other animals
including vermin.
• The provision of shower facilities and clean clothing for staff and visitors.
• The control of the movement of staff and equipment around the farm.
2. The use of good hygiene practices:
• The provision of wash facilities for staff, essential visitors and vehicles prior to entry.
• The use of disinfectant foot baths at the entry to each shed.
• The thorough cleaning and disinfection of all sheds between flocks.
• Maintaining the flock in a good state of wellbeing by good stockman ship, nutrition
and housing.
• The use of a suitable vaccination program.
• The use of a preventive medication program.
• The use of monitoring procedures to keep a check on the disease organism status of
the farm, to check on the effectiveness of cleaning and sanitation procedures and to
test the immunity levels to certain diseases in the stock to check the effectiveness of
the vaccination program.
The early recognition of disease
Early recognition of disease is one of the first skills that should be learned by the
poultry flock manager. Frequent inspection of the flock to monitor for signs of
sickness are required. It is expected that inspection of all the birds is the first task
performed each day, to monitor for signs of ill health, injury and harassment. At the
same time feeders, drinkers and other equipment can be checked for serviceability. If a
problem has developed since the last inspection, appropriate action can be taken in a
timely manner.
The early treatment of disease
If a disease should infect a flock, early treatment may mean the difference between a
mild outbreak and a more serious one. It is important that the correct treatment be used
as soon as possible. This can only be achieved when the correct diagnosis has been
made at an early stage. While there are times when appropriate treatment can be
recommended as a result of a field diagnosis i.e. a farm autopsy, it is best if all such
diagnoses be supported by a laboratory examination to confirm the field diagnosis as
well as to ensure that other conditions are not also involved. When treating stock, it is
important that the treatment be administered correctly and at the recommended
concentration or dose rate. Always read the instructions carefully and follow them.
Most treatments should be administered under the guidance of the regular flock
veterinarian.
Nutrition for economic performance
Diets may be formulated for each class of stock under various conditions of
management, environment and production level. The diet specification to be used to
obtain economic performance in any given situation will depend on the factors such as:
1. The cost of the mixed diet
2. The commodity prices i.e. the income
3. The availability, price and quality of the different ingredients
Maximising production is not necessarily the most profitable strategy to use as
the additional cost required to provide the diet that will give maximum production may
be greater than the value of the increase in production gained. A lower quality diet,
while resulting in lower production may bring in greatest profit in the long term
because of the significantly lower feed costs. Also, the food given to a flock must be
appropriate for that class of stock – good quality feed for one class of bird will quite
likely be unsuitable for another.
The following are key aspects in relation to the provision of a quality diet:
• The ingredients from which the diet is made must be of good quality.
• The weighing or measuring of all the ingredients must be accurate.
• All of the specified ingredients must be included. If one e.g. a grain is unavailable,
the diet should be re-formulated. One ingredient is not usually a substitute for another
without reformulation.
• The micro-ingredients such as the amino acids, vitamins, minerals and other similar
materials should not be too old and should be stored in cool storage – many such
ingredients lose their potency over time, and particularly so at high temperatures.
• Do not use mouldy ingredients – these should be discarded. Mould in poultry food
may contain toxins that may affect the birds.
• Do not use feed that is too old or has become mouldy. Storage facilities such as silos
should be cleaned frequently to prevent the accumulation of mouldy material.
The practice of good stockpersonship
The term “stockpersonship” is difficult to define because it often means different
things to different people. However, “stockpersonship” may be defined as ‘the
harmonious interaction between the stock and the person responsible for their daily
care’. There is no doubt that some stock people are able to obtain much better
performance than others, under identical conditions. The basis of good
stockpersonship is having a positive attitude and knowledge of the needs and
behaviour of the stock under different circumstances, of management techniques and a
willingness to spend time with the stock to be able to react to any adverse situations as
they develop to keep stress to a minimum. Having the right attitude is also a very
important element. The stockperson who spends as much time as possible with the
stock from day old onward by moving among them, handling them and talking to
them, will grow a much quieter bird that reacts less to harassment, is more resistant to
disease and performs better.
The maximum use of management techniques
There are a number of different management techniques available for use by
stockpersons that, while not essential for the welfare of the stock, do result in better
performance. Examples of these are the regulation of day length, the management of
live weight for age and of flock uniformity. The good manager will utilise these
techniques whenever possible to maximise production efficiency and hence
profitability of the flock.
A carefully controlled environment that avoids crowding, chilling, overheating,
or frightening is almost universal in poultry farming. Cannibalism, which expresses
itself as toe picking, feather picking, and tail picking, is controlled by debeaking at one
day of age and by other management practices. The feeding, watering, egg gathering,
and cleaning operations are highly mechanized. Birds are usually housed in wire cages
with two or three animals per cage, depending on the species and breed, and three or
four tiers of cages superposed to save space. Cages for egg-laying birds have been
found to increase production, lower mortality, reduce cannibalism, lower feeding
requirements, reduce diseases and parasites, improve culling, and reduce both space
and labour requirements.
Poultry breeding is an outstanding example of the application of basic genetic
principles of inbreeding and crossbreeding as well as of intensive mass selection to
effect faster and cheaper gains in meat and maximum egg production for the egg-
laying strains. Maximum use of heterosis, or hybrid vigour, through in crosses and
crossbreeding has been made. Rapid and efficient weight gains and high quality,
plump, meaty carcasses have been achieved thereby.
The use of records
There are two types of records that need be kept on a poultry enterprise: 1. Those
required for financial management – for business and taxation reasons 2. Those
required for the efficient physical management of the enterprise For records to be of
use in the management of the enterprise, they must be complete, current and accurate,
be analysed and then used in the decision making process. Failure to use them means
that all of the effort to gather the information will have been wasted and performance
not monitored. As a result, many problems that could have been fixed before they
cause irreparable harm may not be identified until too late.
Marketing
There are three important elements to good marketing practice:
1. Produce the commodity required by the consumer – this usually means continuous
market research must be carried out to relate production to demand.
2. Be competitive – higher price is usually associated with good quality and/or
specialised product. Therefore, it is necessary to relate price to quality and market
demand and to operate in a competitive manner with the opposition.
3. Reliability – produce a commodity for the market and ensure that supply, price and
quality are reliable.
3.3 Processing and preservation of eggs
The production of clean and wholesome eggs has received considerable attention in
the developing and the developed countries in the world. Eggs are used for household
purposes, for confectionery and for other industrial purposes. About 95% of the eggs
are used for table and cooking purpose and the remaining 5% are used in
confectionery. However, the quality of eggs gets deteriorated due to various factors
like hot weather conditions, storage in warm dry places, dirty eggs, fertile eggs,
ungraded eggs and defective packing and handling. It is recorded that 5% of entire
spoilage of egg is due to bacterial contamination. The uncared eggs deteriorate
quickly. So, eggs should be collected within a few hours after being laid. The
preservation of the quality of egg is of great importance in marketing. The problem is
however beset with great practical difficulties. For the proper care freshly laid eggs are
taken to the egg room, maintained at 16°C and cooled as soon as possible. The
following methods are found useful in preserving of eggs.
1. Production of infertile eggs: The fertile eggs deteriorate quickly than the infertile
eggs at suitable higher ranges of temperature, so the production of infertile eggs helps
in preserving egg quality considerably. Infertile eggs can be obtained by separating the
cocks from the hens except during breeding seasons. It is common impression that the
presence of a male bird is necessary for the hens to lay eggs. Hens are capable of
laying eggs without the presence of cock bird and the eggs thus obtained are infertile
ones. But this however is not always possible under the existing conditions of poultry
rearing in rural areas, therefore defertilization of eggs has to be recommended.
2. Defertilization: For the defertilization eggs are kept in hot water maintained at a
temperature range of 135°F to 145°F for about 15 minutes to destroy the germ. The
defertilized egg is as good as infertile egg and can be kept without deterioration for
longer period. Eggs to be defertilized are put in an open basket of wire and dipped into
the hot water for about 15 minutes after which they are removed and kept in some cool
places. In well organised poultry centres, somewhat more elaborated defertilization
plants are installed, which consist of water tanks with mechanical stirrers, electrical
heating arrangements, some wire baskets and egg cooler.
3. Egg cooling.
It is well known that the temperature above 68°F is favourable for the development of
embryo and consequently makes for rapid deterioration of egg quality. A temperature
below 68°F is suitable for maintaining the quality and freshness of the egg. In winter
season cooling device is not needed as temperature is normally low. The ideal thing is
the refrigerated coolers. Some of the cooling systems which can be adopted by poultry
farmers are as:
a. Cool room: Egg room can be cooled by keeping outlets open and sprinkling water
on floor to keep room constantly moist. A ceiling fan in addition will very much be
helpful.
b. Underground cellar: If a cool room is not possible an underground pit should be
made which can provide desirable low temperatures for the proper cooling of eggs.
c. Earthen pot: A large earthen pot can be maintained at low ranges of temperature by
keeping it partially buried in sand heap on which water is sprinkled frequently. In the
bottom of the pot a layer of dry straw or hay should be kept to avoid the percolating
dampness. The pot should be kept in well ventilated place and the mouth of the pot
should be covered with thin muslin so that air and moisture can freely pass inside the
pot.
d. Cold storage: The egg quality is fairly well maintained for about 9 months in cold
storage at 0°C and 85% relative humidity. In India the cold storage of egg is now
under practice in well organised poultry farms.
4. Freezing eggs. It is one of the best means of conserving the quality of eggs. In this
method deterioration is arrested, and the frozen eggs can be held in cold storage for an
extended period until needed. In this method shell eggs are placed in cold storage to
preserve the quality. After thorough chilling eggs are taken to the candling room. After
the eggs are candled they are transferred to the breaking tables, where the shell is
broken against the blunt knife located above a small tray which is supplied with cups
to hold the contents of the egg. Separated yolk and white or mixed yolk with whitecan
be preserved through freezing, which checks the growth of bacteria. Frozen whole
eggs are used for preparing cakes, pasteries, ice cream etc.
5. Drying eggs. The drying of eggs is more convenient way of preserving the eggs
than even freezing. The drying of eggs reduces them to one fourth of their original
weight, so that about 70 normal sized eggs make 1 kg of dried egg. In this method egg
pulp is forced under pressure into a drying chamber and sprayed through a nozzle. The
incoming air is held at higher ranges of temperature while the exhaust air has a
temperature of lower ranges. The spray dried product is usually a fine powder, while
the pan dried product is made up of flakes or scales which can be grinded into powder.
6. Lime sealing of egg The lime sealing of the egg prevent the moisture from
evaporating and escape of carbon dioxide through the pores of shell. For lime sealing
shell eggs are dipped for about 18 hours in lime water, containing powdered salt.
7. Oil coating of egg. The oil coating of egg shell for conserving the quality of egg is
an economical and convenient method for common poultry farmers. The oil used for
this purpose is carnation oil, a white mineral oil refined from paraffin and coconut oil.
The eggs kept in wire basket are dipped for 5 to 10 seconds in a vessel containing the
coating oil. Further, baskets having eggs are taken out from the vessel and are hung on
a hanger for about one hour. During this period fan can be used for proper drying of oil
coated eggs. The dried eggs are ready for storage. The oil coated eggs can be kept for
about 30 days at room temperature and for about 80 days at a temperature lower than
room temperature. Oil coating should be done as soon as eggs are laid.
8. Water glass method. It is a good method for preserving the quality of eggs. For this
purpose commercial water glass (Sodium silicate) is mixed with cooled boiled water
ina definite ratio and is kept in an earthen pot and both are mixed thoroughly with a
wooden piece. Eggs are dipped in this solution and are kept in a cool place.
Processing of egg products
A number of useful products like albumen flakes, egg yolk and egg powder are formed
by egg processing.
1. Albumen flakes: For the preparation of albumen flakes, the thick albumen of egg is
broken by microbial fermentation and glucose is removed. Now the content is acidified
and dried in the form of albumen flakes. The albumen flakes are used for the
preparation of sensitive mixtures for coating zinc or aluminium files for offset printing.
The flakes are also used for the tanning of costly leather.
2. Frozen yolk: The yolk obtained as by product during the processing for albumen
flakes can be frozen for uses in various purposes. The major products of frozen yolk
are, plain yolk, sugared yolk, salted yolk and yolk emulsions. Sugared yolk and salted
yolk is mixed with10% sugar and salt respectively which acts as anticoagulant and
minimises the chemical changes in yolk during freezing. Another method for the
preservation of frozen yolk is by the addition of 6% sodium chloride and 1% of
sodium benzoate to it. The frozen yolk after treatment with 0.04% pepsin can be kept
undamaged for months.
2. Egg powder: For the preparation of egg powder eggs are cleaned in running water,
dipped into 2% solution of bleaching powder. The cleaned eggs are broken and liquid
thud obtained is churned and filtered to separate pieces of shell and chalazae. For the
removal of sugar 0.5% yeast is added and kept at 36°C for 1.5 hours. Now fermented
liquid is pasteurized at 60°C for about 30 minutes, cooled and 1N HCL is added to
bring the pH to 5.5. This solution is spray dried at an inlet temperature of 160°C and
an outlet temperature of 60°C keeping the automizer at 20000 rpm. Thus, egg powder
is obtained which is further kept in vaccum self-drier at 60°C for about 3 hours. In this
powder 1.2% sodium carbonate is added and is canned in sealed containers. The dried
egg powder can be kept for long period even at higher ranges of temperature.
3.4 Diseases of poultry
Poultry includes the birds like chicken (hen), ducks, geese and turkey. Poultry farming
deals with the rearing of them for their eggs and meat. Fowls are widely distributed as
domesticated animal since time immemorial, but in the present century, it has become
an important small-scale industry due to modern need for palatable and nutritive food
which it provides in the form of eggs as well as adult animal. An egg laying poultry
bird is called hen (layers) and the poultry birds groomed for obtaining meat are called
chicken or broilers.
India and the neighbouring countries, like Burma, Sri Lanka are the original
home of the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus). It seems that Aseel or Malay fowl were
carried to Europe through the Middle East about 2,000 years ago and have given rise
to the present-day European breeds.
Poultry farming v/s livestock rearing: Poultry birds are easy to raise, can be
acclimatised to a wide range of climatic conditions, have short life span and are
prolific breeders and thus poultry farming is advantageous over livestock rearing. Hens
have an average yield of 60 eggs per year, but high yielding varieties can produce
more than 240 eggs in a year.
Poultry contributes about Rs. 7,500 crores to the gross national product (GNP)
of India. India ranks fifth in the world's egg production. Egg is one such food
commodity which cannot be adulterated. The average per capita consumption is about
32 eggs and 600 grams of poultry meat a year. At present poultry is estimated to
provide employment to about seven lakh families.
Raising of poultry
(1) Fowl house: Fowls can be reared in the hills of India without houses, but in the
plains, well- ventilated and illuminated, dry houses are essential. A house
of 1.8×1.5×1.5 mhas sufficient accommodation for six fowls. An open shed or
verandah must be attached to this house as run to the fowls for exercise. The fowl
house may be either of wood or brick and the roof is made up of corrugated iron
sheets, thatch or wood. The house and shed should be cleaned daily. Fowls of different
ages are kept in separate houses. In regions with moderate climate, they are kept in
cages (coops).
(2) Feed: The quality and balanced quantity of food material are the back-bones of
poultry. The feed given to poultry birds should contain all the essential nutrients like
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins. The feed usually consists of
mashed cereals like bajra, wheat, maize, jowar, ragi, rice bran and oil cakes. The fish
meal' prepared from the wastes of fish processing industry and meat meal' prepared
from the wastes of meat processing industry is also used to feed poultry birds.
(3) Breeds of fowls: The whole poultry industry is centred round the fowls so the
selection of good breed of birds for particular area is essential. The selection of fowl
breed should be based on the object with which fowls are kept. Some important
indigenous breeds of domestic fowl (desi hens) include Aseel, karaknath, Basara,
Chittagong, Ghagus, Brahma and Cochin. Desi hens are hardy (strong) and possess
natural immunity against common diseases, but they are small, slow growing, and lay
small- sized and less number of eggs. The average egg production of a desi hen is
about 60 eggs per annum, which is very poor. Keeping this fact in mind, a large
number of poultry birds have been imported, breed and acclimatised to local
conditions. Some of these are excellent egg layers while others are good meat
producing birds. Some of the high egg-yielding exotic breeds of hens which have been
successfully acclimatised in India include white Leghorn, Rhode Island Red, Black
Minorca, Plymouth Rock, Light Sussex and New Hampshire. White Leghorn is one
of the most popular egg breeds all over the world. The local varieties of hen (desi
hens) have been cross breed with the high-yielding varieties of exotic breeds to obtain
new breeds which combine the good characteristics of both the breeds. The new
improved breeds (hybrid breeds) of poultry birds grow fast, take less feed, lay more
bigger-sized eggs, and are more resistant to diseases. ILS−82, B−77 HH−260 are some
important improved, high yielding breeds developed in India by cross breeding.
The ILS−82 and B−77 breeds lay about 200 eggs, whereas HH−260 breeds lay more
than 260 eggs per annum.
(4) Diseases of poultry: The poultry keeper should always be careful against the
diseases. Some important diseases of poultry birds are fowl pox, ranikhet (viral), fowl
cholera, salmonellosis, diarrhoea, coryza (bacterial) and aspergillosis (fungal)
However, the most common disease amongst fowls is Ranikhet disease, caused by a
virus. The disease affects the fowls of all ages. Mortality is very high about 98 to 100
per cent. But, with better management, proper housing and nutrition and timely
vaccination of the chicks, the disease can be controlled very effectively.
Other poultry birds: Besides domestic fowl, other birds like ducks, turkeys, etc are
also raised. Ducks comprise about 6 per cent of the total poultry population in India.
They are more abundant in the southern and eastern parts of India. Muscori, pekin,
Aylesbury, Campbell, Indian Runner and Syhlet meta are some important breeds
ducks. Narfold, British white, Broad Breasted Bronze and Beltsville small white are
some important breeds of turkeys in India.
Poultry development in India: Poultry is one of the important components of the
farmer's economy as it provides additional income and job opportunities to a large
number of rural population in the shortest possible time. Central poultry breeding
farms at Bombay, Bhubaneswar, Hessarghatta and Chandigarh engaged in scientific
poultry breeding programme developed high egg producing hybrids and fast-growing
broiler breeds. Central Duck Breeding Farm at Hessarghatta is catering to
requirements of high egg producing khaki campbell breeding stock duckling. The
poultry industry has grown rapidly in India in the last twenty years from a backyard
farming activity to a modern and highly scientific industry. As a result of government's
efforts, during the seventh plan period, egg and broiler production registered a
compound growth rate of 7.3 percent and 18 per cent respectively. The egg production
is estimated to be about 26.1 billion in 1994−95.
 UNIT-IV FISH TECHNOLOGY
1. Genetic improvements in aquaculture industry, Induced breeding
2. Prawn fisheries-culture
3. Freshwater fish culture
4. Pearl and lac culture

Q: - What is Aquaculture?
Ans: - Aquaculture is a branch of science that deals with the farming of economically
important aquatic organisms and plants, under controlled and in a confined
environment.
Brief history:
Aquaculture is an ancient culture technique. It was first practiced in Asia. Chinese, in
3500 BC raised carps in ponds. They also developed breeding techniques for increased
production. Today China dominates in Aquaculture industry. Currently Aquaculture
practices all over the world are growing as fast as any other type of agriculture.
Aquaculture in India is one hundred years old. Till the end of 19th century the method
of pond management was mainly confined to West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Later, it
gradually spread to other states including Tamilnadu.
Prospects of Aquaculture:
1. There is an increasing global demand for food. It is predicted that in another fifteen
years animal proteins alone will provide 40% of the world’s need.
2. As the growing population needs more food, increased aquaculture production
would reduce the pressure on natural population.
3. Aquaculture helps to promote economic development in rural and under developed
areas.
4. Culture of selected varieties of fish will help in good yield of commercial forms
5. The desirable fish being cultured in pond makes the process of harvesting easy and
economical.
6. Fishes are healthy sources for animal proteins and are easy to digest and such an
animal protein can be harvested on demand.
4.1 Genetic improvements in aquaculture industry, Induced breeding
INTRODUCTION
The wild harvest of fish, invertebrates (mainly molluscs and crustaceans), and aquatic
plants (mainly seaweeds), has provided human populations across the globe with
important sources of nutrition from ancient times. Today aquaculture and capture
fisheries directly employ over 180 million people, supporting the livelihood of 8
percent of the world’s population, and each sector provides about 50 percent of the
world’s aquatic food supply.1 There are more than 31 000 species of finfish, 85 000
species of mollusk, 47 000 species of crustacean and 13 000 species of seaweed, with
more than 5000 species accessed in wild fisheries and about 400 species used in
aquaculture. Aquatic genetic resources underpin the productivity and sustainability of
world aquaculture and capture fisheries, and the essential services provided by aquatic
ecosystems in marine, brackish and freshwaters.
 The application of genetic principles to aquatic species used in aquaculture is a
relatively recent phenomenon and the sector has not yet made full use of available
technologies to increase production as other food producing sectors have done. Indeed,
it is only over the past two decades that there has been widespread acceptance that
genetic improvement and the application of biotechnologies has an important role to
play in aquaculture development and that very significant genetic gains can be
achieved through the appropriate application of well-planned genetic breeding
programmes for aquatic species.
APPLICATION OF GENETIC TECHNOLOGIES IN AQUACULTURE
PRODUCTION
Genetic technologies can be utilized in aquaculture for a variety of reasons, although
the main use is to improve production. Improvements in marketability, disease
resistance, body shape, color, culturability, and the conservation of natural resources
can be facilitated by the appropriate genetic technology. Genetic improvement
programmes can be used to provide short-term or long-term gains. The short-term
gains are usually immediate, within two generations, and generally not cumulative
(unless combined with other long-term programmes), whereas the long-term
programmes such as selective breeding produce gains that accumulate each generation.
Long-term genetic improvement strategies
Domestication and the full potential for the utilization of aquatic genetic resources will
only be realized through long-term breeding programmes. The aquaculture sector lags
far behind the crop and livestock sectors with regard to the development of
domesticated and genetically improved strains.
Selective breeding
Growth rate is the characteristic most often improved in selective breeding
programmes and increases of up to 20% per generation have been reported. Other
traits have been shown to have additive genetic variance and therefore, amenable to
improvement. Traits such as disease and stress resistance, timing of maturity and flesh
quality are now being increasingly included in selective breeding programmes.
Breeding programmes have been expanded and their design optimized, and new ones
initiated. Examples of species used in recent breeding programmes include Atlantic
cod, Atlantic salmon, common carp, gilthead seabream, hybrid striped bass, Lake
Malawi tilapia, Mediterranean Sea bass, Nile tilapia, red sea bream and rohu carp.
On disease resistance, the adoption of domesticated and genetically improved
whiteleg shrimp Penaeus vannamei resulted in a drastic increase in shrimp aquaculture
output but also posed serious risks of persistent infections, e.g. with viral pathogens
that can be passed from broodstock to postlarvae. The use of specific pathogen free
(SPF) domesticated shrimp should be supported by robust biosecurity as a prime
consideration.
Another potential application of genetic selection techniques is in the area of
enhancing feed utilization, i.e. to determine whether carnivorous fish with natural
capacity for protein utilization asmain energy source can be genetically selected.
Classic selective breeding programmes will continue to be the main engine driving the
global finfish aquaculture industry forward.
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering technology is now beginning to find application in the production
of aquaculture feed to assist in reducing the dependency on fishmeal and fish oil and to
improve the terrestrial animal- and plant-based feed ingredients. Examples include:
genetically engineered yeast for production of important feed ingredients such as fish
growth hormone and carotenoid pigments; preprocessing techniques of plant material
to reduce the effects of antinutritional factors, breeding of plants with a better amino
acid profile and less antinutritional factors, and converting low grade land animal by-
products into high-value protein.
Transgenic fish has been produced since the mid-1980s with most research
focused on the transfer of growth hormone genes. In several cases, significant
increases in growth have been reported. Currently, no transgenic fish have been
approved for commercial release as food for humans.
Short term genetic improvement strategies
Short-term genetic improvement techniques may not require the same level of record
keeping nor management as long-term projects and can impart significant gains with
simple technologies in a short period of time.
Hybridization and crossbreeding
Crossbreeding and hybridization can be utilized to combine favourable qualities from
two genetically different groups and to take advantage of hybrid vigour (heterosis).
Interspecific hybridization has resulted in fish with improved growth rates,
manipulated sex ratios, sterile animals, improved flesh quality, increased disease
resistance, improved tolerance to environmental extremes and other altered traits.
Chromosome set manipulation
Manipulation of chromosome-sets (polyploidization) has been accomplished for many
aquatic species through thermal and chemical shocks to developing embryos. Triploid
organisms are useful because they are sterile and therefore able to put more energy
into the growth process rather than into maturation and reproduction. Whilst
chromosome-set manipulations have not resulted in many commercial applications for
finfish, the use of triploids has become an important part of the oyster farming industry
and may have similar potential in other shellfish. For example, triploid Pacific oysters
have shown 14 - 159% growth improvement over diploid controls. At the same time,
sterility reduces the risk of breeding with native species which may be of importance
in stocking programmes such as the use of grass carp for vegetation control or to
address environmental impacts of fish escaping from farms.
Sex manipulation
Manipulation of sex can be of advantage in species with sexual dimorphism in
important traits or when reduced chance of reproduction is desired. Monosex male
stocks have considerable commercial benefit in a number of species, most notably in
tilapia due to problems of both precocious maturation and unwanted reproduction
within the production system exhibited by this species. Also, female trout and salmon
grow better and female sturgeon produce caviar. The sex of fish can be easily
manipulated using hormonal treatments, but there has been concern about the use of
hormones in animal production resulting in an increased use of other biotechnologies
in those developing countries whose production goes to export markets.
Emerging technologies
A number of new genetic technologies are now beginning to be applied in cultured
aquatic species. Genome technologies include DNA marker, novel sequencing, gene
discovery, genome mapping (showing the relative positions of genes along a
chromosome) and genome expression technologies that examine how genes actually
function in the organisms. These technologies will be useful to find important genes
affecting traits such as disease resistance, growth rate and sex determination, allowing
more precisely targeted selection to improve aquaculture performance.
Induced breeding
Induced breeding in fish culture
The practice involved in prompting the fish to breed in confined water is known as
induced breeding. Induced breeding technique enhances seed productions. It is
performed by a technique called hypophystation. The hypophystation is a process of
stimulating the breeding activity of fish through the injection of pituitary extract
resulting timely release of eggs and sperms from the ripe gonads. The extract should
come from the healthy pituitary gland of healthy fish of the same species or closely
related one.
Induced breeding technique
This technique involves (i) preparation of pituitary extract (ii) selection of breeder (iii)
injection to breeder (iv) spawning in breeding hapa.
(i) Preparation of pituitary extract: For the preparation of extract, the pituitary gland
is removed by dissecting the head from gravid donor fish. The removed pituitary
glands are kept in absolute alcohol for dehydration. Then the glands are preserved in
fresh alcohol contained in dark colouredpvals and stored in a refrigerator. The
preserved pituitary glands are then softened in an instrument called homogenizer with
distilled water. The extract prepared by centrifugation method is stored in vials
(ii) Selection of Breeder: The breeder to be selected must be healthy, fully ripe and of
medium size. The preferable age group may be ranging from two to four years and
weight may be ranging from 1 to 5 kg.
(iii) Injection to breeder: Intramuscular injection of pituitary extract is administered
with a hypodermic syringe. In usual practice, female alone is administered with a
stimulating dose of 2 to 3mg/kg weight. After 6 hours a second dose of extract with 5
to 8 mg/kg is also injected. Similarly, males are also injected with the first dose of 2-3
mg/kg of body weight of the recipient fish.
(iv) Spawning in breeding hapa : The injected male and female breeders are kept
together in a rectangular enclosure called ‘Hapa’. The hapa is made of mosquito net
cloth to prevent breeders from escaping. The release of matured eggs and sperms
called spawning, takes place after 3-6 hours.
What are the advantages of induced breeding?
i) Eggs and spawns of carps at the collected from the river bed, there are every
possibility of mixture of other fishes of eggs and spawns. Whereas, in the induced
breeding there is no possibility of mixture and as a result the pure form of fish seeds
are obtained.
ii) Desired species of carps can be cultured through the induced breeding.
iii) Large numbers of eggs are available from a fish through induced breeding.
iv) In the same season, a carp can be induced to breed more than once.
v) Transportation cost becomes very low as the carps can be breed in any desired
pond.
vi) Between the different species of fishes hybridization can be done and it is possible
to get hybrid variety of fishes.
4.2 Prawn fisheries-culture
The prawn production in India accounts for about 15% of the total world production of
prawn and shrimps. For marine prawns, the percentage of Indian production to the
world production is about 20%. The major commercial prawn species reared in India
are Macrobrachium. rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii.
BIOLOGY
Macrobrachiumrosenbergii, also known as the giant river prawn or the giantfreshwater
prawn, is native to the Indo-Pacific and northern Australian Regions. The adult is
found in freshwater, while its larval stages live in brackish water after the juvenile
stage. During mating, the male attaches its spermatophore on the ventral side of the
abdomen of female’s body and the eggs coming out of female genital opening are
fertilised by the sperms derived from spermatophores.
The fertilised eggs are held in the brood chamber or egg basket, which is made by the
interlocking appendixinterna of the pleopods and are aerated by vigorous movements
of the swimmerets for 2-3 weeks. This is in contrast to shrimps, whose fertilized eggs
are released into the sea. Females can lay 80,000-100,000 eggs during one spawning
and eggs take an average of 20 days at 28°C to hatch into larvae.
After hatching, larvae are dispersed by the rapid movements of the abdominal
appendages of the female. Larvae are
planktonic and swim upside down actively with
tail first posture and feed on small planktons.
Larvae complete development in 15-20 days
and metamorphose into post larvae, which
resemble miniature adults and generally feed
near bottom and then begin to migrate upstream into freshwater rivers within one or
two weeks after metamorphosis and are soon able to swim against the rapidly flowing
currents (contranatant behaviour) and can also crawl over the stones in shallow waters.
HATCHERIES AND NURSERIES
Freshwater prawn hatcheries need supplies for both freshwater and sea water; the latter
can be drawn from areas where the salinity is 30 to 35 ppt. The brackish water derived
from the mixture of seawater, brine or artificial sea salts mixed with freshwater should
have salinity of 12-16 ppt, pH of 7.0 to 8.5 and dissolved oxygen level of 5 ppm.
The prawn farm site should also have the following facilities:
• A secure power supply to ensure that the components of hatchery, e.g. aeration, water
flow etc. can continue to function uninterrupted.
• An uninterrupted access for incoming and outgoing materials by road.
• Access to the uninterrupted seawater and freshwater supplies.
• Farm should not be close to cities, mines and industrial centres or to other activities
that may pollute the water supply.
• Farm should be situated in a climate where the temperature range of 28-31°C can be
easily maintained.
• Food supplies for larvae should be easily procured when required.
• Should have access to biological and veterinary assistance whenever required.
• Should be close to other nursery facilities feed sites.
• Should be close to the market for quick selling after harvesting.
OBTAINING BERRIED FEMALE PRAWNS
Berried females are those that carry fertilised eggs in their egg basket. They can be
obtained from rivers, canals, lakes and estuaries, where they are most abundant in the
beginning of rainy season. In the tropics, berried females can be obtained all the year
round from farm ponds containing adult animals. Selecting fast-growing, berried
females from ponds has a positive effect on the weight of prawns at harvest.
In the tropics, where berried females are readily available, special brood holding
facilities are not required but in temperate areas, indoor brood stocking facilities are
essential. Brood stock is disinfected by placing into freshwater containing 0.2-0.5 ppm
of copper sulphate or 15-20 ppm of formalin for about 30 minutes. Prawns should be
fed daily at the rate of 1-3% of total biomass.
Berried females can be collected from the holding system and placed in tanks
where the eggs will hatch into first instar larvae, which are collected by netting. The
hatching tanks should be covered to prevent bright sunlight to reach larvae for which
the inner side of the tanks should also be painted with black epoxy-resin paint.
LARVAL REARING TANKS
Different designs of containers can be used to grow freshwater prawn larvae, which
may be circular flat-bottom tanks, circular conical-bottomed plastic tanks, plastic-lined
wooden tanks, rectangular concrete tanks, concrete-faced brick tanks and earthen water
jars. Good drainage system is essential as water has to be removed from tanks at
harvesting time. Mixing tanks are also required for preparing the brackish water to be
used in the hatchery as well as storage tanks. Aeration of water is also essential which
can be done through PVC pipes, with holes cut at one-foot intervals.
Larvae should not be exposed to direct sunlight, for which 90% of the tan area should
be covered and shady. Some natural light is essential for good larval survival, which
can be provided through transparent roofs over the hatcheries. Physical filters that
include sand filters, drum screen filters, and medium filters should be easy to clean and
designed to minimize water loss.
Water needs to be chemically treated before it can be used in rearing tanks and
also should be physically filtered by passing through the sand bed before transferring it
to another tank for treatment. Mix the seawater or brine with freshwater to form 12 ppt
of brackish water. The optimum temperature range for M. rosenbergii is 28-31°C.
Below 24-26°C the larvae will not grow well and the time taken for them to reach
metamorphosis will be longer.
LARVAL FEEDING
A wide range of feeding material is used by different hatcheries, which includes
nauplius larvae of shrimps, freshwater cladocerans, fish eggs, squid flesh, frozen adult
Artemia, rotifers, fish flesh, egg custard, worms and commercial feeds available in the
market. The quantity of food to be given depends on the utilization of feed by larvae
that vary from place to place. The quantity of feed consumed will increase as the
larvae grow.
HARVESTING POST LARVAE
When post larvae are about 7-8 mm long, they can withstand transfer from 12 ppt
water into freshwater. However, they should not be harvested from the larval tanks and
transferred directly into holding tanks containing freshwater but should be
acclimatized to fresh water in the larval tanks itself. When majority of larvae have
metamorphosed, water level in tanks should be reduced to about 35 cm. Then
gradually the tank should be flushed with freshwater over a period of 12 hours. The
post larvae can then be collected and transferred or the larval tanks can be refilled to
70 cm with fresh water and the animals temporarily held in them. The best way to
harvest post larvae from the larval tanks is to reduce the water level and then remove
them by nets.
HOLDING POST LARVAE BEFORE SALE
Post larvae cannot be held in holding tanks for more than a week or two prior to
stocking in nurseries. When the post larvae are in the holding tanks, the rearing water
should be changed every 2-3 days) to provide aeration. Post larvae can be stocked at
densities of about 5,000/m2 for one week, although survival increases by reducing the
density.
REARING PONDS
Pond size should be such that can be managed easily. Generally, most farms have
ponds of around 0.2- 0.6 ha size. Large ponds are normally wider than 30 m and often
drained for harvesting. The average depth of water in freshwater prawn ponds in
tropical areas should be about one meter; with a minimum of 0.75 m and a maximum
of 1.2 m. Deeper ponds are used in colder areas to maintain more stable water
temperatures. The banks of the ponds or embankments or bunds must be high enough
for the highest water level expected in the pond, which generally should be 1-2 feet
higher than water level. The flow of water into each pond must be controlled by
valves, stop-logs or plugs. Paddle wheels are the most efficient method of increasing
dissolved oxygen levels in the pond water.
STOCKING
Stocking the ponds quickly reduces competitors and predators, which have less time to
become established. Often post larvae that are a week or two old after metamorphosis
are used to stock ponds, where they remain until harvesting. A stocking density of
about 40,000/ha is recommended for the monoculture of Macrobrachium rosenbergii.
Using larger juveniles for stocking increases the survival rate as well as the average
weight of the animals by as much as about 30%.
FEED TYPE
Natural productivity of the ponds generally gives small production from the ponds.
Therefore, intensive farming must involve supplementary feeding to increase
productivity. Some farms claim to rely on fertilizers, rather than feeding at the
beginning of the rearing period, which stimulates algal bloom and lot of micro flora
and fauna in the ponds. Others find that providing feed from the beginning of the
rearing period improves performance and is cost-effective. Commercial feeds are the
most productive and reliable to use but they are expensive and unaffordable to small
farmers.
HARVESTING MARKETABLE PRAWNS
Basically, there are two methods of harvesting: culling and draining. The time of
harvesting depends partly on the growth rate and partly on the size of animals for
market requirements. Culling is used to harvest market-sized animals from the ponds
to remove faster growing prawns which increase density quickly. In tropics culling
usually starts 5-7 months after post larvae have been stocked to take out the market-
sized animals for selling and keeping the smaller ones and soft-shelled animals in the
pond for further growth. After about 8-11 months ponds are drained and all animals
are sold. In cull harvesting, a seine net is pulled through the pond to remove market-
sized animals, while in drain harvesting, a harvesting sump is installed in front of the
gate or outside the pond, in which prawns will accumulate while water is being
drained.
DISEASE CONTROL
Several diseases affect freshwater prawn larvae as well as adults. Some hatcheries use
formalin at the rate of 200 ppm daily as an effective remedy for protozoan and
hydrozoan parasites and fungal diseases. Formalin can also be used at a lower level of
about 30 ppm for longer periods, followed by water change after 24 hours. Larvae can
also be transferred to disinfecting tanks every 5-10 days to get rid of diseases and
parasites. Daily dip of larvae in Malachite green (0.2 ppm) for 30 min has also been
used for treatment. Also, dipping in copper sulphate 0.4 ppm solution for 6 hours is
recommended. Antibiotics and sulfa drugs are sometimes used to control filamentous
bacteria and some hatcheries use lime (CaO) as a prophylactic measure.
4.3 Freshwater fish culture
Fish farming or pisciculture involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures
such as fish ponds, usually for food. It is the principal form of aquaculture, while other
methods may fall under mari-culture. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild
for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally
referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in
fish farming are carp, tilapia, salmon, and catfish.
Indian aquaculture has been growing at a fast pace over the last two decades,
with freshwater aquaculture contributing over 95% of the production. The three Indian
major carps, namely catla (Catlacatla), rohu (Labeorohita) and mrigal
(Cirrhinusmrigala) contribute to the bulk of production amounting to about two million
tonnes annually (FAO, 2003). Silver carp, grass carp and common carp formthe
second important group for fish production. Average national production from
pondfisheries has increased from 0.6 tonnes/ha/year in 1974 to 2.2 tonnes/ha/year in
2002 (Tripathi, 2003).
COMPOSITE FISH CULTURE
The three major carps cultured in India, namely, catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo
rohita) and mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), contribute as much as 87 percent of the total
Indian aquaculture production. Three exotic carps were also introduced, namely, silver
carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix); grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and
common carp (Cyprinus carpio). There are also several other medium and minor carp
species, namely, Labeo calbasu, L. fimbriatus, L. gonius, L. bata, L. ariza, Cirrhinus
mrigala, Puntius sarana, Hypselobarbus pulchellus, H. kolus and Amblypharyngodon
mola, which are important in aquaculture. Among catfishes, magur (Clarias
batrachus) is the only species that is widely cultured, while the catfish, ‘Singhi’
(Heteropneustes fossilis) is cultured to some extent in the eastern states.
Attempts have also been made to culture the other catfishes like Pangasius
pangasius, Wallago attu, Sperata seenghala, S. aor and Ompok pabda. The finfish
species of importance include climbing perch (Anabas testudineus), murrels (Channa
striata and C. marulius) and tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus and Oreochromis
niloticus).
PREPARATION OF PONDS
Pond preparation involves making the ponds weed and predator-free and generating
adequate natural food for the survival and growth of fishes. Control of aquatic weeds,
removal of undesirable flora and fauna and improvement of soil and water quality are
important aspects of fish management. Weeds have to be removed from the ponds
first, after which the tank is fertilized with both organic and inorganic fertilizers, such
as Oil Cake and raw Cow Dung @ 5,000 kg/acre.
The PH of pond water should be 7.5 – 8.00, for which lime is added in the tanks
@ 200 kg/acre per annum. The lime increases pH and also helps in eradicating fish
parasites. The organic fertilizer in the form of raw cow dung is added in the tank @
500 kg/acre per annum. This is followed by the application of inorganic fertilizers like
Super Phosphate @ 120 kg/acre and Ammonium Sulphate @ 200 kg/acre, in spaced
intervals.
SPAWNING
Because of constant temperature and favourable weather conditions, carps spawn all
the year round in India. Spawning takes place early in the morning when the water
surface cools down to about18 degrees. The female carp swims near the water surface
followed by the male carp in nuptial swimming and rubbing each other’s bodies.
Female lays egg and male releases its milt and eggs are fertilised.
Three days after fertilization, the eggs begin to hatch. The newly hatched larva
is about 5.5 mm long, delicate and transparent, with a yolk sac attached to the belly. It
rarely swims but settles on the bottom or on some floating object. On the second day,
the larva starts swimming and on the third day swims actively from surface to bottom.
During these stages, the larva or fry gets its nourishment from the yolk sac, which
disappears on the third day and the fry now must search for food and eat.
Supplementary fry-feed in the form of hard-boiled egg yolk or powdered milk
can be applied on the water surface at this time.
Carpscan feed on almost anything like insects, shells and worms and can also eat
aquatic plants, bread crumbs, rice bran and fish meal made from corn, copra and
soybean.
CHOOSING BROODERS
Both female and male brood fish should be carefully tended for 2-3 months before
induced spawning operations are carried out and males and females should be
segregated and kept in separate ponds.
To be good brooders the fish must be more
than one year old and 150 gm in weight. Sex
can be determined by the shape of the genital
papilla which is pointed in male and oval in
female. When the female is ready for induced
spawning operations, It should have a bulging
abdomen that is soft to touch. The cloaca is
reddish and prominent, and the contour of the
enlarged ovaries can be seen on both sides of the abdomen. The head should be small
and the snout pointed.
Nursery ponds are constructed to rear carp fry or larvae. A normal sized nursery pond
measures 5 x 10 m, with a depth of 0.5 m. Before filling up water the pond should be
cleaned thoroughly to get rid of predators and parasites that may be destructive the
larvae. About 1,500 to 3,000 fries can be stocked in the nursery pond andfed with
milk, wheat flour or boiled egg yolk by spreading it on the water surface. This feed can
be supplemented with rice bran, bread crumbs or fish meal, which can be given twice a
day, in the morning and in the afternoon.
Rearing ponds, where adult carps are cultured until they reach marketable size, are
needed, which have dimensions of 15 x 50 m and depth of 1.5 to 2 m. Rearing ponds
should also be thoroughly cleaned before filling them with water. This is done by
exposing the bottom and letting it dry thoroughly. Next step involves application of
fertilizers, which encourages growth of aquatic plants, moss and algae, which are
important natural food and also lead to growth of micro fauna. Manure in the form of
chicken dropping is the most commonly used being cheaper and more readily available
in large quantities. When carp fry reaches the length of about 5 to 7 cm, they are
transferred from the nursery pond to the rearing pond and allowed to grow to adult
stage.
STOCKING OF PONDS
Ponds are stocked with fish fries of appropriate size. Fingerlings of over 10 cm in size
are recommended for stocking in culture ponds. Stocking of smaller fishes may result
in higher mortalities and slow growth during the initial months. In fish polyculture a
fingerling size of 50-100 g is preferred for stocking to ensure higher survival and
better growth. Generally, a density of 5,000 fingerlings is kept as a standard stocking
rate per ha for carp polyculture, which will give a yield of 3-5 ton/ha/yr.
Prior to stocking, the fish fries should be dippedin 3-5% potassium
permanganate solution for 15 seconds to kill parasites. In composite fish farming, a
combination of six species are cultured, namely, Catla, Rohu, Mrigal and exotic Carps
like Silver Carps, bass and common Carp. Supplementary feeds like Groundnut Oil
cake and Rice Bran are fed to fishes during culture. At the end of the culture period of
say 12 months, the fish will reach marketable size and fetch attractive prices.
POST-STOCKING POND MANAGEMENT
While fertilizing the carp ponds, 20-25% of the total amount of organic manures is
applied a fortnight before stocking and the remaining amount is applied in equal
instalments on a bimonthly basis. Other commonly used organic manures include
poultry manure, pig dung, duck droppings, cow dung, domestic sewage, etc. Azolla, a
nitrogen-fixing fern is used as a bio-fertilizer for aquaculture at the rate of 40
tonnes/ha/yr, which supplements nutrients required for intensive carp culture. The
bioprocessed organic manure, biogas slurry has also been used as manure in carp
culture.
The supplementary feed in carp polyculture is usually restricted to a mixture of
groundnut/mustard oil-cake and rice bran. Grass carps are fed with aquatic vegetation
such as Hydrilla, Najas, Ceratophylum, duck weeds, etc. which can be kept in special
enclosures in corners of the pond. Feeding preferably twice-a-day is advocated @ 5%
of the initial biomass of stocking material for first month and then gradually reducing
it.
Aeration may be done mechanically to increase the concentration of dissolved oxygen
in ponds, by paddle wheel aerators, aspirator aerators and submersible pond aerators. It
is also necessary to replace certain amount of water at regular intervals.
HARVESTING
Harvesting of fishes is usually done after a culture period of 10 months to one year.
However, fishes attaining the marketable size can be harvested periodically depending
on several factors, which also reduces the pressure of density in the ponds and thereby
providing sufficient space for the growth of fishes.
4.4 Pearl and Lac culture
Q: -What do you mean by Pearl Culture?
Ans: -History of Pearl Industry: For the first time the idea of pearl industry was
evoked in Japan which was carried out in the Bay of Japan located at South coast of
Hansoo. But in Japan, pearl culturists feel difficulty due to unfavourable climatic
conditions. Kokichi Mikimoto (1858-1954) is referred to be the father of pearl
industry. Pearl is a concretion formed by molluscs. It consists of nacre or mother of
pearl. It is characterised by iridescence and translucence.
Pearls is produced by the marine molluscs such as pearl oyster and mussel.
Types of pearls: Pearls are of seven types. They are the following -
(1) Linghapearl: This is the best quality pearl obtained from marine oysters.
(2) Seed pearls: The small pearls are called seed pearls.
(3) Baroque pearls: These are spherical pearls formed inside the body.
(4) Blister pearls: These are pearls attached to the shell. They are half-spherical in
shape.
(5) Oriental pearls: These are true pearls with a great lustre, beauty and a smooth
surface.
(6) Natural pearls: These are the pearls obtained from pearl oysters of deep oceans.
(7) Cultured pearls: These are the pearls obtained from cultivated species of pearl
oysters.
Composition of pearl: Pearl comprises of water, organic matter, calcium carbonate
and the residue.
(1) Water 24
(2) Organic matter 3.55.9
(3) Calcium carbonate 90
(4) Residue 0.10.8
The pearl is formed of nacre. The nacre is formed of two substances namely a calcium
carbonate which is in the form of argonite or calcite and an albuminoid substance
called conchiolin/colchitin
Pearl-producing animals: Pearls are produced by bivalve molluscs. There are marine
as well as fresh water animals.

Cultivable species: Pearls are intensively produced by

cultivating pearl oysters. The most important molluscs
cultivated for pearls are Pinctada vulgaris.
Biology of pearl oysters: Pearl oysters are sedentary
animals. They are attached to rocks. They have two valves.
One valve is cemented to the rocks and the other free. They
spawn twice in a year. The eggs are hatched into free
swimming larvae. The larvae sink to the bottom of the
water and develop into young oysters called spats. They
grow to their maximum size in four or five years.
Pearl formation: The pearl oysters produce pearl as an
adaptation against outside materials. When a foreign
material such as a sand, grain or a parasite happens to
enter the body it adheres with the mantle. The mantle
epithelium at once grows over the material in the form of
a sac and encloses it. This mantle epithelium starts secreting concentric layers of nacre
around the foreign material. The completed structure is called pearl.
Culture of pearls: The culture of pearls is a complex but sensitive process. It involves
the following steps.
(1) Collection of oysters: Oysters for pearl culture are obtained by three methods.
They are as follows:
(i) Pearl oysters are collected from the bottom of the sea.
(ii) Spats (young oysters) are collected by placing cages in spat-falling areas of the sea.
(iii) In the laboratory eggs of pearl oysters are fertilized and young once are obtained.
(2) Preparation of graft tissue: The piece of tissue which is inserted into the oyster is
called graft tissue It is cut off from the mantle of another oyster. The graft must be in
the form of a square of 2×2mm
in size.
(3) Preparation of nucleus: The nucleus is a foreign material which is inserted into
the oyster. It is in the form of 2 mm in diameter. It is prepared from the shell of
molluscs
(4) Implantation: The oyster is placed on a table. The foot is exposed. A small
incision is made on the foot. On this incision the graft tissue is placed. The nucleus is
placed on the tissue. Then the oyster is released in cages. The entire operation should
be completed in 30 minutes.
(5) Rearing of oysters: The operated oyster are placed in cages and the cages are
suspended from rafts in the sea. This type of culturing oysters is called raft culture.
(6) Harvesting: Pearls attain their maximum in three years. After three years, the
oysters are removed from cages and the pearl is taken out. Chemically pearl is made
up of CaCO3 and conchiolin.
Quality of pearl: The pearls obtained are of variable shaped and sizes. They may be
white, or cream red or pink red in colour. The spherical pearls of rainbow colour are
rarely found. The best quality of pearl is known as ‘lingha pearls’ and obtained from
marine oysters.
Q: -What is Lac culture?
Ans: - Lac is the resinous secretion produced by lac insect as protective covering
around its body. It belongs to genera Laccifera or Tachardia. Laciferalacca is the
common Indian lac insect. It lives on the trees of fig family namely kikar, ber
(Zizyphusmauritiana), babul (Acacia nilotica), dhak or palas (Butea monisperma),
kusum (Schleicheraoleosa), Katha or khair (Acacia catechu), peepal (Ficus religiosa)
and gular (Ficus glomerata).
Lac insect feeds upon the sap of its host plant like any other sap sucking insect. It is
found in India and Philipine islands.
Male and female chambers: The adult male and female insects live on the tree twigs
enclosed in thick capsules or chambers separately. The male chamber are elongated
and cigar- shaped. Each male chamber has a branchial aperture in its anterior part.
The female chamber is smaller and rounded. It has a branchial aperture in its anterior
part and a tubercular or anal opening in the posterior part.
Male and female lac insects: The female is more degenerated. It has a bag -like body
with a small reduced antenna. The eyes legs and wings are lost during metamorphosis.
The male lac insect is red in colour. It has an incipient head with antennae and eyes.
The thorax has three pairs of legs and abdomen carries genital sheath, penis and a pair
of long caudal setae, one on either side of genital sheath.
The wings may be present or absent. Because of the absence of mouth parts, the insect
is incapable of feeding.
Life-cycle: The male lac insect crawls out of its chamber by pushing open the
operculum reaches the female chamber and fertilizes the female through the anal or
tubercular opening of female shell. The male dies soon after copulation. The female
secretes more resin forming a large sized chamber. Thus, the secretion by females
mainly contributes to lac.
Oviposition takes place into a space inside
the female chamber made by the
contraction of the body of female. This
space is called incubating chamber. Each
female lays 200-300 eggs. The eggs hatch
into red coloured larvae. These crawl out of
the female's incubating chamber. The mass
emergence of larvae is called swarming.
Each larva is boat-shaped in
appearance and is about 1/2 mm in length.
Its head bears paired antennae and the
ocelli. The mouth parts are of piercing and
Sucking type with maxillae and mandibles together forming the sucking tube or
proboscis. Its thorax is three segmented and each thoracic segment carries a pair of
walking legs. The abdomen bears a pair of long caudal setae.
Attachment of larvae to new shoots: The larvae on emergence craw1 on the twigs of
any one of the host trees mentioned earlier and settle down on the under surface of
new shoots. These prefer young succulent shoots. These force their proboscis through
the bark and insert it into the phloem tissue and start feeding. Here these
metamorphose into the adult insects and by secreting lac enclose themselves into the
chambers.
Secretion of Lac: The secretion forms a shining layer over their bodies in the
beginning but hardens and becomes opaque later on. The secretion is produced by the
cutaneous glands of the skin and is deposited around three openings the two branchial
apertures at the anterior end and anal opening at the posterior end. The secretion is in
the form of waxy filaments which have a woolly white appearance. On coming in
contact with air, these join to from a continuous covering.
Composition of lac: Lac is a complex substance having large amount of resins,
together with sugar, water and other alkaline substances. The percentages of various
constituents are as given below
(1) Resin - 68 to 90 %
(2) Dye - 2 to 10 %
(3) Wax - 6%
(4) Albuminous matter - 5 to 10 %
(5) Mineral matter - 3 to 7 % and
(6) Water - 3%
Lac Cultivation: In order to obtain lac, lac insects are cultured and the technique of
lac production is known as the lac culture. It involves proper care and regular pruning
of the host plants, propagation of insects, and collection and processing of lac, For the
purpose of propagation the older branches containing crusts are tied with new branches
and this method is called oculation. When new crusts are formed, the old twigs are
removed (approximately 20−30cmlong) and this is known as harvesting.
Extraction of Lac: The largest yield of lac and dye are obtained by harvesting the
infested twigs while females are still living. The harvesting is done twice a year in
June and November. The encrused twigs are pruned and lac scrapped from them. This
is known as stick lac. It is grounded and sieved. The resulting granular lac is called
seed lac, and the fine particles the dust lack. The seed lac is washed, melted spread out
in a thin layer and dried thus forming the shellac of commerce. The dust lac is used for
making toys, shellac is used in the preparation of varnishes, paints and polishes; in
making gramophone records and in filling ornaments like bangles and bracelets. It is
used as insulating material.
Damages Caused to Lac Crop
(1) Lac crops is reported to be damaged by squirrels, rats, and monkeys.
(2) Certain insects also attack lac insect.
(3) Parasites : Eight species of chalcidoids live as parasites in the body of lac insects.
These deposit their eggs into the body of insects through their anal opening.
(4) Predators : Eublemmaamabilis and Holcocerea pulverea are the two lepdoteran
predators that damage about 35% of the lac cells. Their females lay eggs on or near the
encrustation. The larvae that hatch out bore through the lac deposit and feed on lac
insects.
Precautions to be Taken During Lac Culture
(1) Lac intended to be used as brood should be cut at or near the swarming period,
never more than one week before.
(2) Lac to be used as brood must be healthy and resistant to the parasite and predator's
attack.
(3) Lac used as brood should be removed after a maximum period of 3 weeks from the
date of swarming.
(4) All brood lac after use and the lac cut from the tree should be scrapped from the
sticks to destroy larvae and pupae of predators of parasites.
(5) Lac should not be stored after cutting. It should be treated as soon as possible.
(6) Fumigation and water immersion immediately after cutting are also helpful in the
disinfection of Lac by insects.
Economic importance of Lac: Lac is used in the preparation of sealing wax (shellac),
paints, varnish, the manufacture of photographic materials, electrical goods. Lac is also
used in the preparation of bracelets, buttons, toys and in filling hollow gold ornaments.
Lac is also utilized in confectionery trade and in artificial leather and pottery.
Gramophone industry used to consume 30-40% of the annual production in the
preparation of records.
Cultivation of Lac in India: India has monopoly in the production of lac. It is about
75% of the world's total output. Approximately 40 lakh ponds of lac is produced. Bihar
M.P. and west Bengal are major lac producing states in India. Thailand is major
competitor of India as it shares 25% of the total exports. India exports about 1,80,400
kg. of lac the use of lac is being gradually replaced by plastic.