RESPIRATION

• Respiration essential physiological activity of all living organisms

• Exchange of gases b/w organism & environment

• Taking in of O₂ & releasing CO₂

• Activity obtain energy to carry out metabolic activities of the body.

• Activity in protoplasm of cell librating energy as a result of [O] of digested food, CO₂ thus produced

is harmful hence is removed by respiration.

 KINDS OF RESPIRATION

• Aerobic Respiration – involves uptake of oxygen.

• Anaerobic Respiration - does not involve uptake of oxygen.

SOURCES OF OXYGEN
• Oxygen from air
• Oxygen dissolved in water
 Respiratory Organs and Mode of External respiration found among animals

• Organs gaseous exchange have greater rate of gas

exchange per unit area than general body surface
respiratory organs

• Respiratory organs special region in land animals-

lungs.

1. Integument- sponges, protozoans,coelentrates,amphibians richly

vascularised moist all the time
2. Gills - lamellibranchs – fresh water mussel, fishes
3. Lungs - land animals –reptiles, birds and mammals.
 How does gaseous exchange take place at
respiratory surface

• Gaseous exchange intake of O₂ and output of CO₂

respiratory surface the surface is
richly vascularised.

• When O₂ respiratory surface, O₂ absorbed into

body & CO₂ released into environment.

• Gaseous exchange simple diffusion

partial pressure of respiratory gases.
• Gases move from high partial pressure to low partial pressure.

• In air & water, partial pressure of O₂ is very high hence O₂

diffuses into body.

• Partial pressure of CO₂ in blood is high hence it diffuses outside

the body via respiratory surface
 Transport of Respiratory Gases
• In mammals, O₂ & CO₂ transported via the circulatory system - blood.
• Respiratory pigments blood.
• They have special affinity for gases.
1. Haemoglobin
2. Haemocyanin
3. Haemerythrin
4. Chlorocruonin
5. Pinnaglobin
6. Echinochrome
7. Vanadium
8. Molpadin
 Haemocyanin

• Next important to Hb, but less efficient than Hb.

• Blue colored copper containing respiratory pigment in the plasma of certain

Arthopoda , Crustaceans - Prawn, Daphnia and Mollusca -Helix, Octopus, Pila,

Arachnids - Scorpions & Limulus.

• Dispersed in plasma not in corpuscles.

Given their origin 450
million years ago,
horseshoe crabs are
considered living fossils.
This blueish liquid is one of the most expensive resources in the world.
It's actually blood from a horseshoe crab, and the stuff this blood makes costs $60,000 a gallon (4.5 litres).
It's used to make a concoction called Limulus amebocyte lysate or LAL.
Before LAL, scientists had no easy way of knowing whether a vaccine or medical tool was contaminated with
bacteria, like E. coli or salmonella.
Scientists would inject vaccines into huge numbers of rabbits and then basically wait for symptoms to show up.
But when LAL was approved for use in 1970, it changed everything.
Drop a minuscule amount of it onto a medical device or vaccine, and the LAL will encase any gram-
negative bacteria in a jelly cocoon.
While it can't kill the bacteria, the jelly seal is like a fire alarm, alerting us to the presence of what could
become a potentially lethal infection and prevent it from spreading.
Each year, the medical industry catches around 600,000 horseshoe crabs.
The crabs are drained of 30% of their blood and up to 30% of the crabs don't live through the process.
 The Atlantic horseshoe crab
(Limulus polyphemus) lives
around the Gulf and eastern
Atlantic coasts of the United
States.
 This species can be found from
Texas, around the Florida coast,
and all the way up the Atlantic
coast.
Primitive Immune Response
• Horseshoe crabs do not produce antibodies to fight infection.
• However, they do demonstrate a novel approach to dealing with pathogens.
• Presumably, this allows these long-lived creatures to survive in their bacteria-laden
habitats.
• When a horseshoe crab’s body detects the presence of endotoxin - a compound associated
with a variety of gram-negative bacteria - its blood cells begin to exhibit massive clotting.
• This effectively seals off the invading pathogens before they can harm the horseshoe crab.
Haemerythrin
 Red colored pigment.
 Occurs in corpuscles of Sipunculus & plasma of other
organisms- Branchiopod – Lingula, Polychaete – Magelona
 Iron containing pigment, iron directly attached to protein and
there is no porphyrin.

Lingulata is a class
of brachiopods,
among the oldest of
all brachiopods having The Sipuncula or Sipunculida
existed since the is a class containing about 162
Cambrian period (538.8 species of unsegmented
million years ago) marine annelid worms.
Polychaete – Magelona
Magelona is a genus of annelids belonging to the
family Magelonidae.
 Chlorocruonin

• Green colored pigment found in plasma of blood.

• First discovered by Milne Edwards in Sabella annelids.

• Distribution restricted to 4 families of Polychaete (Annelida) –

Sabellidae, Serpulidae, Chlorhaemidae & Ampheretidae.

• A metallo - porphyrin pigment.

 The Serpulidae are a family of sessile,
Sabellidae, or feather duster worms tube-building annelid worms in the class
Polychaeta.
 Miscellaneous Pigments
 Pinnaglobin – Brown colored pigment containing Manganese,
occurs in body fluid of Pinna –a Lamellibranch.
 Vanadium – found in body fluids of Ascidians.

 Echinochrome – red colored, contains iron, found in coelomic fluid

of sea urchin.

 Molpadin – Molybidinium containing respiratory pigment present

in holothuria of Echinodermata – eg. Molpadia.
• O2 is utilized to break down nutrient molecules like glucose and to derive
energy for performing various activities.

• CO2 which is harmful is released during the above catabolic reactions.

• O2 has to be continuously provided to the cells and CO2 produced by the cells
have to be released out.

• Process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the

cells is called breathing, commonly known as respiration.
• Place your hands on your chest; you can feel the chest moving up and down
which is due to breathing.
 Human Respiratory System

Pair of external nostrils

leads to a nasal chamber through the nasal passage

opens into the pharynx (common passage for food and air)

Pharynx opens through larynx into trachea

Larynx (cartilaginous box) - helps in sound production (sound box)

Trachea divides into right & left primary bronchi.

Each primary bronchi undergoes repeated divisions

secondary tertiary bronchi

bronchioles ends into

very thin terminal bronchioles

 Primary
Secondary
Tracheae supported by incomplete
Tertiary cartilaginous rings
Initial Bronchioles

Terminal bronchiole
• Don’t have cartilaginous rings required to stop the tract from collapsing during
exhaling
• Instead they have elastic fibres associated with lung tissue to support them
 Each terminal bronchiole

very thin, irregular-walled and vascularized bag-like structures called

alveoli
 • Lungs – comprises of branching network of
bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

• A typical pair of human lungs contains about 700 million alveoli.

• On an average around 350 million alveoli are present in each
lung
• Increases surface area for exchange of respiratory gases
 • covered by a double layered pleura
Lung
• pleural fluid in between
s
It reduces friction on lung-surface (acts as a
lubricant for lungs to move smoothly)

Pleura Outer pleural membrane - close contact with thoracic

lining

Inner pleural membrane - contact with lung surface

 Parts of the Respiratory System

1. Conducting Starts with external nostrils till

part terminal bronchioles

1. Transports atmospheric air to alveoli

2. clears air from foreign particles
3. Humidifies air
4. brings the air to body temperature
2. Respiratory/Exchange part • alveoli
• alveolar ducts

Site of actual diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and

atmospheric air
 Alveolar ducts
• serve as passageways connecting the
alveolar sacs and bronchioles.

• Alveolar ducts function to collect and

direct:
– the oxygen entering the alveoli

– carbon dioxide exiting the lungs

 Alveolar Ducts
• One section that connects the tract is
the alveolar duct.
• Connect the alveolar sacs to bronchioles.
• Since there are many alveolar sacs, this means
that there are many alveolar ducts.
• Around 2 million alveolar ducts located in the
lungs!
• Alveolar ducts assist alveoli in their function.
 Alveoli
extremely tiny

can only handle gas exchange when air

arrives there at a certain pressure
 Alveolar ducts
collect inhaled air through tract
disperse it to alveoli, in alveolar sac

After gas has been exchanged by alveoli, alveolar ducts

collect CO2 that needs to be exhaled out

Significance of Alveolar ducts

• Collecting CO2 from many alveoli into alveolar ducts
allows air pressure in lungs to change
• helps more air to be exhaled at one time
 Lungs situated in thoracic chamber

Anatomically an air-tight
chamber
formed dorsally by
vertebral column
ventrally by sternum Thoracic
chamber
laterally by ribs

lower side by dome-

shaped diaphragm
Respiration involves:
1. Breathing/pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air
is drawn in and CO2 rich alveolar air is released out.

2. Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2 ) across alveolar

membrane.
3. Transport of gases by blood.

4. Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.

 EXCHANGE OF GASES

Alveoli - primary sites of exchange of gases

Exchange of gases also occur between blood and tissues

O2 and CO2 are exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion

mainly based on pressure/concentration gradient
 Factors that can affect rate of diffusion

Solubility of the thickness of membranes

gases involved in diffusion
 Partial Pressure

• Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases.

• Is represented as pO2 for oxygen and pCO2 for carbon dioxide.

• Concentration gradient for O2 differs from alveoli to blood and

blood to tissues
• Earth's atmosphere is composed of approximately:
– 78 % nitrogen
– 21 % oxygen
– 0.93 % Argon

– 0.04 % CO2

– trace amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton, ozone and hydrogen

– water vapor

• So the most abundant naturally occurring gas is nitrogen (N2) with

78%
• Breathing takes place by atmospheric air (environment consists of
70−80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen & other gases)
• The oxygen which inhales by human binds with haemoglobin in
RBCs
• Nitrogen does not bind with blood as it does not have nitrogen
binding protein complex to bind the nitrogen,
• Hence humans are unable to inhale nitrogen
• Nitrogen has triple bond which is very unreactive
• Nitrogen is unable to break after breathing.
• Nitrogen alone is harmful to breathing whereas when it gets mixed
with other gases it becomes suitable for breathing
We inhale: nitrogen – 78% oxygen-21%
other gases – 1%
 Why don't we say we breathe nitrogen?

• Basically when air fills our alveoli,

by the process of diffusion, only O2

in the air is taken into the blood

stream while the other gases along

with the waste CO2 is exhaled.

• So you do breathe in nitrogen, but it is

exhaled as it is by our body
 What happens if humans inhale nitrogen?

• Nitrogen itself is not poisonous, but someone who inhales it,

with no air, will pass out quickly, probably in less than a
minute, and die soon after — from lack of oxygen.
• The same is true of other physiologically inert gases,
including helium and argon, which kill only by replacing
oxygen.
 Do we breathe out nitrogen?

• Nitrogen makes up almost 4/5th of the air we breathe, but

being unreactive is not used in respiration at all - we simply
breathe the nitrogen back out again, unchanged.
• However, nitrogen is essential for the growth of most living
things, and is found as a vital ingredient of proteins.
 What does pO2 mean?
Partial pressure of oxygen

• pO2 reflects the amount of O2 gas dissolved in blood.

• It primarily measures the effectiveness of lungs in pulling O2 into

blood stream from atmosphere

• Elevated pO2 levels are associated with:

– Increased oxygen levels in the inhaled air.

– Polycythemia (an abnormally high number of RBCs in blood, as a primary disease or

secondary condition (usually associated with lung or heart disease or living at high
altitude)
Decreased pO2 levels are associated with:
• Decreased oxygen levels in the inhaled air
• Anemia
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
• Restrictive pulmonary disease
• Hypoventilation
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

• A group of lung diseases that block airflow and make it

difficult to breathe.
• Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are the most common
conditions that make up COPD.
• Damage to the lungs from COPD can't be reversed.
• Symptoms include shortness of breath, wheezing or a
chronic cough.
• Rescue inhalers and oral steroids can help control
symptoms and minimise further damage.
• Emphysema is a lung condition
that causes shortness of
breath.

• In people with emphysema, the

air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are
damaged.

• Over time, the inner walls of the

air sacs weaken and rupture —
creating larger air spaces
instead of many small ones
 In the Lungs
O2 diffuses out of alveoli and into capillaries surrounding
alveoli
O2 (about 98 %) binds reversibly to respiratory pigment
hemoglobin found in RBCs
RBCs carry O2 to tissues where O2 dissociates from hemoglobin
and diffuses into cells of tissues
Alveolar pO2 is higher in alveoli (pALVO2 = 100 mm Hg) than
blood pO2 (40 mm Hg) in capillaries
Because this pressure gradient exists, O2 diffuses down its pressure
gradient, moving out of the alveoli and entering the blood of the
capillaries where O2 binds to hemoglobin.
• At the same time, alveolar pCO2 is lower

pALVO2 = 40 mm Hg than blood PCO2 = (45

mm Hg).

• CO2 diffuses down its pressure gradient,

moving out of the capillaries and entering
the alveoli.
 MECHANISM OF BREATHING

Breathing involves two stages :

• inspiration during which atmospheric air is
drawn in
• expiration by which alveolar air is released out
 MECHANISM OF BREATHING

1. Movement of air into lungs

2. Movement of air out of lungs

carried out by creating a pressure gradient

between lungs & atmosphere
 When does Inspiration occur?
When pressure within lungs
(intra-pulmonary pressure) is less than
atmospheric pressure
OR
When there is a negative pressure in lungs
with respect to atmospheric pressure
 When does Expiration occur?

When intra-pulmonary pressure is

higher than atmospheric pressure
• Contraction of external
inter-costal muscles lifts up the
ribs and sternum causing an
increase in volume of thoracic
chamber.
• Overall increase in the thoracic
volume causes a similar increase
in pulmonary volume.
• An increase in pulmonary
volume decreases the
intra-pulmonary pressure to
less than the atmospheric
pressure which forces the air
from outside to move into
the lungs, i.e., inspiration
• Relaxation of diaphragm and
the inter-costal muscles
returns the diaphragm and
sternum to their normal
positions and reduce the
thoracic volume and thereby
the pulmonary volume.
• This leads to an increase in intra-pulmonary
pressure to slightly above the atmospheric
pressure causing the expulsion of air from the
lungs, i.e., expiration.
• We have the ability to increase the strength of inspiration and
expiration with the help of additional muscles in the
abdomen.
• On an average, a healthy human breathes 12-16
times/minute.
• The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be
estimated by using a spirometer which helps in clinical
assessment of pulmonary functions.
 Diaphragm
• Diaphragm and a specialized set of muscles – external and
internal intercostals between the ribs, help in generation of
such gradients.
• Inspiration is initiated by the contraction of diaphragm
which increases the volume of thoracic chamber in the
antero-posterior axis.
Oxygen Transport: Role of Haemoglobin

63
Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in the RBCs

O2 can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin

Haemoglobin that has released oxygen is called reduced hemoglobin (HHb)

Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of 4 molecules of O2

Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to partial pressure of O2

 Factors which can interfere with binding
• pCO2
• H+ concentration
• Temperature

Lungs
HHb + O2 HbO2 + H+

Tissues
Hemoglobin Loading and Unloading of Oxygen

66
 Transport of Oxygen
•Molecular oxygen is carried in the blood:
–Bound to hemoglobin (Hb) within red blood cells
–Dissolved in plasma

1.Removal of O₂ from respiratory surface

•O₂ from air diffuses into blood through respiratory surface.

•O₂ diffuse into blood & combines with Hb to form

oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2).
 2. Diffusion of O2 from blood into tissue cells

As blood reaches the body where the tissue cells are in
need of O₂, Oxyhaemoglobin dissociates into free O₂ &
reduced Hb.

Liberated O₂ is used for [O] of digested food to liberate

energy in tissue cells.

In tissue cells, partial pressure of CO₂ is high and combines

with Hb and carried to lungs and exhaled outside the body.
Oxygen dissociation curve
 Oxygen dissociation curve

Useful to study the effect of pCO2, H+

concentration, temperature etc., on binding of
O2 with haemoglobin.

When Haemoglobin saturation % with O2 is

plotted against the pO2 – a Sigmoid Curve is
obtained
 • High pO2
In the alveoli • Low pCO2
• Lesser H+ concentration
• Lower temperature

Hence, factors are favourable for the formation

of oxyhaemoglobin
 • Low pO2
In the tissues • High pCO2
• Higher H+ concentration
• Higher temperature

Hence, factors are favourable for the dissociation

of O2 from the oxyhaemoglobin
• A sigmoid curve is obtained when percentage saturation of haemoglobin
with O2 is plotted against the pO2.
• This curve is called the Oxygen dissociation curve (Figure 17.5) and is
highly useful in studying the effect of factors like pCO2, H+ concentration,
etc., on binding of O2 with haemoglobin.
• In the alveoli, where there is high p O2, low pCO2, lesser H+ concentration
and lower temperature, the factors are all favourable for the formation of
oxyhaemoglobin, whereas in the tissues, where low pO2, high pCO2, high
H+ concentration and higher temperature exist, the conditions are
favourable for dissociation of oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin.
• This clearly indicates that O2 gets bound to haemoglobin in the lung
surface and gets dissociated at the tissues.
 This clearly indicates that O2 gets bound to
haemoglobin in the lung surface and gets
dissociated at the tissues

98 % saturated arterial blood contains 20 ml

oxygen per 100 ml blood
 Influence of pO2 on Hemoglobin Saturation

Hemoglobin saturation plotted against pO2 that

produces a oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation
curve

75
 Hemoglobin Saturation Curve

98 % saturated arterial blood contains 20 ml oxygen per 100 ml blood.

 Bohrs’ Effect

• If more CO₂ is present, Hb can hold less O₂. This phenomenon is

called Bohrs’ effect.

• Tissues  pO₂ is low  pCO₂ is high, HbO₂ dissociates  O₂

becomes available  tissue needs.
• Lungs  pO₂  high  HbO₂ formed readily.

• pH, temperature, electrolytes  important factors  influence

transport of O₂.

• Slight increase in pH increases dissociation of HbO₂.

• Thus more acidic pH in tissues due to CO₂

favours release of O₂ to tissues.
 Transport of CO₂
1. Removal of CO₂ from tissue cells

 [O]  food molecules in tissue cells CO₂ H₂O from respiring

tissue cells.
• CO₂ is transported in the blood in 3 forms:
1. Dissolved in plasma – 7 to 10 %
2. Chemically bound to hemoglobin – 20 % is carried in RBCs as
carbaminohemoglobin
3. Bicarbonate ion in plasma – 70 % is transported as bicarbonate
(HCO3–)
 Transport and Exchange of CO₂

• CO₂ diffuses into RBCs and combines with H2O to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which
quickly dissociates into H+ and HCO3–

CO2 + H 2O 
H2CO3 
H+ + HCO3–

Carbon Carbonic Hydrogen Bicarbonate

Water
dioxide acid ion ion

• In RBCs, carbonic anhydrase (enzyme) reversibly catalyzes the conversion of CO₂ and
water to H2CO3
 Transport and Exchange of CO₂

• At the lungs, these processes are reversed

– HCO3– move into the RBCs and bind with H+ to form HCO3–
– H2CO3 is then split by carbonic anhydrase to release CO₂ and H2O
– CO₂ then diffuses from the blood into the alveoli

CO2 + H2O 
H2CO3 
H+ + HCO3–

Carbon Carbonic Hydrogen Bicarbonate

Water
dioxide acid ion ion

81
 Transport and Exchange of CO₂
• At the tissues:
– Bicarbonate quickly diffuses from RBCs into the plasma
– The chloride shift – to counterbalance the outrush of
negative bicarbonate ions from the RBCs, chloride ions
(Cl–) move from the plasma into the erythrocytes

82
 Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide

• At the lungs, these processes are reversed

– Bicarbonate ions move into the RBCs and bind with hydrogen
ions to form carbonic acid
– Carbonic acid is then split by carbonic anhydrase to release
carbon dioxide and water
– Carbon dioxide then diffuses from the blood into the alveoli
Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide in tissue cells

Hamburger’s Effect/Chloride Shift

Transport and Exchange of Carbon Dioxide – In Lungs

Hamburger’s Effect/Chloride Shift

 Haldane Effect

• The amount of CO2 transported is markedly affected by the

pO2

• Haldane effect – the lower the pO2 and hemoglobin

saturation with oxygen, the more CO2 can be carried in the

blood
 Haldane Effect

• At the tissues, as more CO2 enters the blood:

– More O2 dissociates from hemoglobin (Bohr effect)

– More CO2 combines with hemoglobin, and more

bicarbonate ions are formed

• This situation is reversed in pulmonary circulation

 Influence of CO2 on Blood pH

• The carbonic acid – bicarbonate buffer system resists

blood pH changes
• If H+ concentrations in blood begin to rise, excess H+ is
removed by combining with HCO3–
• If H+ concentrations begin to drop, H2CO3 dissociates,
releasing H+

89
 Influence of CO2 on Blood pH

• Changes in respiratory rate can also:

–Alter blood pH
–Provide a fast-acting system to adjust pH
when it is disturbed by metabolic factors

90
Gas Exchange Between the Blood and Alveoli

Figure 10.8A
 Respiration in mammals
• Includes
• nose,
• nasal cavity,
• pharynx,
• larynx,
• trachea, and
• conducting passageways to gas-exchange lung surfaces

• Respiratory tract consists of airways that carry air to and from these surfaces:
• Conducting portion – entrance to nasal cavity to smallest bronchioles
• Respiratory portion – includes respiratory bronchioles and alveoli (air sacs)
 Organs in the Respiratory System
STRUCTURE FUNCTION

nose / nasal cavity warms, moistens, & filters air as it is inhaled

pharynx (throat) passageway for air, leads to trachea

larynx the voice box, where vocal chords are located

keeps the windpipe "open"

trachea (windpipe) trachea is lined with fine hairs called cilia
which filter air before it reaches the lungs

two branches at the end of the trachea, each

bronchi
lead to a lung
a network of smaller branches leading from the
bronchioles bronchi into the lung tissue & ultimately to air
sacs
the functional respiratory units in the lung
alveoli
where gases are exchanged

Exhaled air follows reverse pathway

 Upper Respiratory Tract Functions

 Passageway for respiration

 Receptors for smell
 Filters incoming air to filter larger foreign material
 Moistens and warms incoming air
 Resonating chambers for voice
 Lower Respiratory Tract
 Functions:
 Larynx: maintains an open airway, routes food and air appropriately, assists in
sound production
 Trachea: transports air to and from lungs

 Bronchi: branch into lungs

 Lungs: transport air to alveoli for gas exchange

By the time air reaches lung alveoli most foreign particles and pathogens have
been removed
 Human Respiratory System
Functions:
– Works closely with circulatory system, exchanging gases between air
and blood:
• Takes up oxygen from air and supplies it to blood (for cellular
respiration).
• Removal and disposal of carbon dioxide from blood (waste product
from cellular respiration).
Homeostatic Role:
– Regulates blood pH
– Regulates blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
 Breathing

Alternation of inhalation and exhalation.

Diaphragm plays a major role during inhalation and exhalation.
 Inhalation
• Diaphragm relaxes, moving downward and
causing rib cage, chest cavity, and lungs to
expand.
• Air rushes in, due to decrease in internal lung
pressure as lungs expand.

Exhalation
• Diaphragm contracts, moving upwards and
causing rib cage, chest cavity, and lungs to
contract.
• Air rushes out, due to the increase in internal lung
pressure as lungs contract.

• Breathing is controlled by centers in the nervous system to keep up with body’s demands.
Control of Respiration: Medullary Respiratory Centers

• The dorsal respiratory group (DRG)/

inspiratory center:
– Is located near the root of nerve IX
– Appears to be the pacesetting respiratory center
– Excites the inspiratory muscles and sets eupnea
(12-15 breaths/minute)
– Becomes dormant during expiration
• The ventral respiratory group (VRG) is
involved in forced inspiration and expiration

103
 Control of Respiration:
Medullary Respiratory Centers
Control of Respiration: Pons Respiratory Centers

• Pons centers:
– Influence and modify activity of the medullary
centers
– Smooth out inspiration and expiration transitions
and vice versa
• The pontine respiratory group (PRG) –
continuously inhibits the inspiration center
 Four Respiration Processes

 Breathing (ventilation): air into and out of lungs

 External respiration: gas exchange between air and blood
 Internal respiration: gas exchange between blood and tissues
 Cellular respiration: oxygen use to produce ATP, carbon dioxide as waste
 Respiratory Volumes
• Tidal volume (TV)-air that moves into and out of the lungs with each breath
(approximately 500 ml)
• Residual volume (RV)–air left in the lungs after strenuous expiration (1200 ml)
 Developmental Aspects

• Olfactory placodes invaginate into olfactory pits by the 4th week

• Laryngotracheal buds are present by the 5th week
• Mucosae of the bronchi and lung alveoli are present by the 8th week
• By the 28th week, a baby born prematurely can breathe on its own
• During fetal life, the lungs are filled with fluid and blood bypasses the
lungs
• Gas exchange takes place via the placenta
Respiratory System Development

Chapter 22, Respiratory System 109

Figure 22.29
• Hemoglobin helps transport CO2 and buffer blood
• Hemoglobin is found in red blood cells
- Functions:
– Transports oxygen
– Transport carbon dioxide
– Helps buffer blood
As carbon dioxide is picked up from tissues it is converted into carbonic acid:

CO2 + H2O <-----> H2CO3 <----> H+ + HCO3 -

Carbon Carbonic acid Carbonate ion
dioxide
Hemoglobin picks up most H + ions, so they don’t acidify the blood.
At rest, the body takes in and breathes out about 10 liters of air each
minute.
* The right lung is slightly larger than the left.
* The highest recorded "sneeze speed" is 165 km per hour.
* The surface area of the lungs is roughly the same size as a tennis
court (78 feet long, an 27 feet wide, 2,106 sq ft).
* The capillaries in the lungs would extend 1,600 kilometers if placed
end to end.
* We lose half a liter of water a day through breathing. This is the

water vapor we see when we breathe onto glass.

* A person at rest usually breathes between 12 and 15 times a

minute.

* The breathing rate is faster in children and women than in men.

• The body may seem somewhere on average within the 5-7

foot range, but we are completely compacted.

• The small intestine unraveled would be about 20 feet long.

• It is compacted to fit inside of our bodies.

• If the lungs were laid flat, our lungs can cover a tennis court.

(78 feet long, an 27 feet wide, 2,106 sq ft).

• Actually, 90% of all our energy comes from breath.
• Cells then need oxygen to be able to break up the chemical
bonds of food molecules such as sugars, carbohydrates, and
proteins to release the energy they contain.
• By focusing more on our breath, we will be able to stimulate
our body to become healthier and happier.
• Focused breath increases our concentration and gives us
more energy.
• Health of our RBCs is, therefore, an important factor in the
oxygen level.
• However, the level of oxygen can differ a lot from person to
person and environmental factors
• This gaseous exchange happens most effectively in the
bottom part of our lungs i.e. the alveoli.
• Deep breaths are important, they make sure that the air
reaches the alveoli where the gaseous exchange takes place
and makes the blood more oxygenized, which increases the
oxygen level in your blood.
 Respiratory Acid-Base Balance

• Ventilation normally adjusted to keep pace with

metabolic rate.
• H2CO3 produced converted to CO2, and excreted by the
lungs.
• H20 + C02 H2C03 H+ + HC03-
 What is respiratory acidosis and alkalosis?

• Normal human physiological pH is 7.35 to 7.45.

• A decrease in pH below this range is acidosis, an increase

above this range is alkalosis.
• Respiratory alkalosis is by definition a disease state where
the body's pH is elevated to greater than 7.45
Respiratory alkalosis is a condition marked by a low level of CO2 in the blood
due to breathing excessively.
Respiratory alkalosis is usually caused by over-breathing (called
hyperventilation) that occurs when you breathe very deeply or rapidly.
Causes of hyperventilation include: Anxiety or panic. Fever
Symptoms of respiratory alkalosis
Dizziness, feeling lightheaded.
Numbness/muscle spasms in hands
Respiratory Alkalosis
and feet.
discomfort in chest area. • Hyperventilation.
• Excessive loss of CO2
Confusion, dry mouth, tingling in arms.
• pH increases
• Plasma HCO3- decreases
• pCO2 decreases
Respiratory acidosis
• is a condition that occurs when the lungs cannot remove all of the CO2 the body produces.
• This causes body fluids, especially the blood, to become too acidic.
• acidosis is characterized by a pH of 7.35 or lower.
Symptoms of respiratory acidosis include:
Hyperventilating.
Shortness of breath.
Fatigue, Chronic exhaustion.
Headaches, Drowsiness.
Respiratory Acidosis
Confusion, Sweating.
• Hypoventilation
• Accumulation of CO2 in tissues
• pH decreases
• Plasma HCO3- increases
• pCO2 increases
Human Foetus Exchanges Gases with Mother’s Blood through the Placenta
Fast facts on how babies breathe in the womb:

 In the earliest weeks of pregnancy, a developing baby looks more like a ball of cells than a

person.

 In these early weeks, there’s no need to breathe.

 The umbilical cord is the main source of oxygen for the fetus.

 As long as the umbilical cord remains intact, there should be no risk of drowning in or

outside the womb.

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318993#how-do-babies-breathe-in-the-womb
How do babies breathe in the womb?
Several biological systems and processes play a role. They include:
The umbilical cord
 After 5-6 weeks of pregnancy, the umbilical cord develops to deliver oxygen directly to the
developing fetus’s body.
 The umbilical cord connects to the placenta, which is connected to the uterus.
 Both structures house many blood vessels, and continue to grow and develop throughout
pregnancy.
 Together, the umbilical cord and placenta deliver nutrients from the mother to the baby.
 They also provide the baby with the oxygen-rich blood necessary for growth.
 This means that the mother breathes in for the baby, and the oxygen in her blood is
then transferred to the baby’s blood.
 The mother also breathes out for the baby, as carbon dioxide from the baby is moved
out through the placenta to the mother’s blood, the removed with exhale.
 Substances going into the developing baby, such as oxygen, never interact with the
substances leaving the baby, such as waste products.
 They travel through the umbilical cord through two separate blood vessels.
Lung development in the womb

• Lung development is normally complete after 35-36 weeks of pregnancy.

• Even when a fetus’s lungs are fully developed, it’s impossible for the fetus to

breathe until after birth.

• Developing babies are surrounded by amniotic fluid, and their lungs are filled

with this fluid.

Pregnancy lasts for about 280 days or 40 weeks. A preterm or premature baby is delivered before 37 weeks of your pregnancy. Extremely preterm infants are born 23 through 28 weeks.
• By 10–12 weeks of gestation, developing babies begin taking “practice” breaths.

• But these breaths provide them with no oxygen, and only refill the lungs with more amniotic

fluid.

• Because it’s normal for a fetus’s lungs to be filled with fluid, a fetus can’t drown in the

womb.

• If there is a problem with the placenta or umbilical cord, there’s no other way for a developing

baby to breathe. As a result, issues with these structures can cause birth defects, brain injuries,

or even the death of the fetus.

Breathing during and after birth
• Some babies are born with the umbilical cord wrapped around the neck. This
relatively common issue, called a nuchal cord, happens in 12 - 37 % of births
• In most cases, it causes no problems.
• This is because the umbilical cord is still able to provide the baby with oxygen.
• However, if the cord is wrapped very tightly around the baby’s neck, the
oxygen supply in the cord might be limited.
• During birth, the care provider will check for a nuchal cord, and if possible, unwrap the cord.
• Once the baby is born, the new environment – which includes temperature changes, a lack of
amniotic fluid, and exposure to air – triggers the baby’s first breath.
• Some babies have their first bowel movement during birth, before exiting the womb. This
stool is called meconium.
• During a practice breath during or shortly before birth, a baby may inhale meconium.
• Inhaling meconium can be serious and can harm a baby’s ability to breathe outside the womb.
• So babies who have inhaled meconium may need treatment with suction and oxygen after
birth.
Oxygen deprivation as a birth injury
 When a baby does not get enough oxygen during and immediately following labor and birth,
it is called hypoxia.
 Hypoxia deprives the brain and body of the oxygen they need to properly function.
 This can cause a range of birth injuries, including cerebral palsy and death.
 Common causes of hypoxia include:
o Cord problems, such as a damaged cord, or a cord with damaged blood vessels.
o Abnormal presentation. Some babies born breech suffer from oxygen deprivation at birth.
o Shoulder dystocia, which occurs when the shoulders get stuck, slowing delivery after the head has
emerged.
o Excessive bleeding during pregnancy or birth.
o A baby experiencing hypoxia may need supportive care, such as oxygen therapy or a ventilator.

Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group of disorders that affect a person's ability to move and maintain balance and posture
• Lung development begins early in pregnancy, but is not complete until the third trimester.
• Between 24–36 weeks of pregnancy, the lungs begin developing alveoli – the tiny lung sacs that fill with
oxygen.
• Until these sacs are fully developed, a baby may have difficulty breathing on its own outside of the womb.
• Women giving birth sometimes worry about how their babies will breathe, especially as the baby travels
down the narrow confines of the birth canal.
• The umbilical cord continues to supply a baby with oxygen until after it is born.

• A baby is breech when they are positioned feet or bottom first in the uterus.

• Ideally, a baby is positioned so that the head is delivered first during birth.

• Most breech babies will turn to a head-first position by 36 weeks

What happens to fluid in fetal lungs after birth?

• After delivery, as a baby breathes for the first time, the lungs fill with air and more

fluid is pushed out.

• Any remaining fluid is then coughed out or slowly absorbed through the

bloodstream and lymphatic system.

 The mother's placenta helps the baby "breathe" while it is growing
in the womb.
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide flow through the blood in the placenta.
 Most of it goes to the heart and flows through the baby's body.
 At birth, the baby's lungs are filled with fluid.
 They are not inflated.
 The baby takes the first breath within about 10 seconds after
delivery.
 This breath sounds like a gasp, as the newborn's central nervous
system reacts to the sudden change in temperature and
environment.
 Once the baby takes the first breath, a number of changes occur
in the infant's lungs and circulatory system:
o Increased oxygen in the lungs causes a decrease in blood flow
resistance to the lungs.
o Blood flow resistance of the baby's blood vessels also increases.
o Fluid drains or is absorbed from the respiratory system.
o The lungs inflate and begin working on their own, moving
oxygen into the bloodstream and removing carbon dioxide by
breathing out (exhalation).
• Gas exchange is the primary function of the postnatal lung.
• The low-resistance, high-volume pulmonary circulation, which receives half of
the combined ventricular output, is a crucial factor in achieving efficient gas
exchange by the aerated lung during post-natal life.
• During fetal life, the placenta serves as the organ of gas exchange; placental
vascular resistance is low and receives nearly half of fetal combined ventricular
output.
• During this period, fetal pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) is high
(physiologic pulmonary hypertension), and blood flow is diverted from the
pulmonary artery to the aorta and umbilical arteries toward the placenta.
• Fetal pulmonary circulation must prepare the lungs for adequate structural growth
and functional maturation in anticipation for the switch to air breathing in the
postnatal period.
• During the normal transition at birth, PVR decreases and is associated with an
increase in pulmonary blood flow.
• Abnormal pulmonary transition leads to sustained increase of PVR, similar to the
fetal state, resulting in PPHN (pulmonary hypertension of the newborn).
• Parenchymal lung diseases such as meconium aspiration syndrome can result in
ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) mismatch, hypoxemia, and structural and functional
changes in pulmonary circulation resulting in HRF (hypoxemic respiratory failure).
What is increased placental resistance?

One of the most common concerns with placental resistance is high

resistance, which can result from preeclampsia and other factors.

When blood pressure increases, resistance increases, which can

mean that overall blood flow to the baby decreases.

This can cause fetal growth restriction (FGR).

 Developmental Aspects
• At birth, respiratory centers are activated, alveoli inflate, and lungs begin to
function
• Respiratory rate is highest in newborns and slows until adulthood
• Lungs continue to mature and more alveoli are formed until young
adulthood
• Respiratory efficiency decreases in old age
 Special Respiratory Action

• Cough:- Reflex action, Stimulate takes place from trachea and lungs, It is forceful
expiration preceded by prolong inspiration, Cough air exploded through mouth.
• Hiccough:- Noisy inspiration due to muscular spasm of diaphragm at irregular interval.
Noise is due to sudden sucking of air through vocal cords.

• Yawning:- Prolong inspiration due to increase of CO2 concentration in lungs.

• Sneezing:- Reflex reaction stimulated by olfactory epithelium of nasal chamber in which

air comes out through nose and mouth both.
 Different scientific term for Breathing :-

• Eupnoea - Normal Breathing

• Hypopnoea - Slower Breathing
• Hyperpnoea - Rapid Breathing
• Apnoea - No Breathing
• Dyspnoea - Painful Breathing
• Orthopnoea - Difficult breathing in horizontal position
• Tachypnoea - Rapid shallow Breathing
• Polypnoea - Rapid deep Breathing
 Diseases of the Respiratory System
• Respiratory rate: 10 to 14 inhalations/minute.
• In one day, an average human:
– Breathes 20,000 times
– Inhales 35 pounds of air (15 L)
• Most of us breathe in air that is heavily contaminated with solid particles,
ozone, sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and many other
damaging chemicals.
• Breathing contaminated air can cause a number of diseases including
asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer.
Pneumonia:
Acute inflammation of the lungs.
Symptoms include high fever, chills, headache,
cough, and chest pain.
Causes: Bacterial, fungal, or viral infections.
Treatment: Antibiotics or other antimicrobials

Tuberculosis
Infectious disease caused by the bacterium
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Symptoms include fever, night sweats, weight
loss, a racking cough, and splitting headache
 Asthma
• Characterized by dyspnea, wheezing, and chest tightness

• Active inflammation of the airways precedes bronchospasms

• Airway inflammation is an immune response caused by release of IL-4 and IL-5, which

stimulate IgE and recruit inflammatory cells

• Airways thickened with inflammatory exudates magnify the effect of bronchospasms

• Bronchospasm is a tightening of the muscles that line the airways (bronchi) in your lungs.
• When these muscles tighten, your airways narrow.
• Narrowed airways don't let as much air come in or go out of your lung
Asthma: Condition in which breathing is impaired by constriction of bronchi and
bronchioles, cough, and thick mucus secretions

Bronchitis:
Inflammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchi. May present with
cough, fever, chest or back pain, and fatigue.
Causes: Associated with smoking, pollution, and bacterial or viral infections

Emphysema: Permanent and irreversible destruction of alveolar walls, resulting

in loss of lung elasticity and gas exchange surface.
Symptoms include shortness of breath, difficulty exhaling, cough, weakness,
anxiety, confusion, heart failure, lung edema (swelling), and respiratory failure.
Causes: Smoking, pollution, old age, and infections.
Treatment: Oxygen to help breathing. No cure
 Diseases of the Respiratory System

• Cigarette smoke is one of the worse air pollutants.

– Contains 4000 different chemicals.
– Each cigarette smoked subtracts about 5 minutes from life expectancy.
– Cigarette smoke paralyzes cilia in airways, preventing them from removing debris
and from protecting delicate alveoli.
– Frequent coughing is the only way airways can clean themselves.
– Cigarette smoke also causes fetal damage, which can result in miscarriage,
premature birth, low birth weight, and poor development.
 Diseases of the Respiratory System

Lung Cancer:
Cancerous growth that invades and destroys lung tissue.
Very high fatality rate.
Symptoms include bloody sputum, persistent cough,
difficulty breathing, chest pain, and repeated attacks of
bronchitis or pneumonia.
Causes: Smoking (50% of all cases) and pollution (radon,
asbestos). Smokers are 10 times more likely to develop
lung cancer than nonsmokers.
Treatment: Surgery is most effective, but only 50% of all
lung cancers are operable by time of detection. Other
treatments include radiation and chemotherapy.
 Surfactant

• Type II cuboidal epithelial cells are scattered in alveolar walls

• Surfactant is a detergent-like substance which is secreted in fluid coating
alveolar surfaces – it decreases tension
• Without it the walls would stick together during exhalation
• Premature babies – problem breathing is largely because lack surfactant

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