Chapter 3

The Development and Plasticity of the

Nervous System
 The Structural Development of the
Human Nervous System
Brain development begins at the point of
conception when the ovum is fertilized by a
sperm resulting in the formation of a zygote.
After the zygote divides the resulting
developing human is called:
• Embryo – next 6 weeks
• Fetus – at week 9 and for
the remainder of the
pregnancy

Eight cell zygote

Development of the Nervous System:
The Human Embryo
Layers of cells in the embryo:
• Ectoderm forms the nervous systems as well
as the epidermis and parts of the eyes and ears
• Mesoderm forms connective tissue, muscle,
blood, blood vessels
• Endoderm forms the linings of the body
Throughout the embryonic and fetal
period different cell types are created; the
process is called differentiation.
Structural Development:
Formation of Nervous System
Embryonic layers thicken to become:
• Neural Plate is the name for the thickened
ectodermal layer.
• Neural folds push up to form a space called
the neural groove.
• Neural tube forms from the neural groove in
23 days. The brain and spinal cord develop
from it.
3 Vesicle Stage 5 Vesicle Stage
 Structural Development:
Differentiation of the Brain
Structural Development:
Differentiation of Embryonic Cells
Structural Development:
The Developing Spinal Cord
Alar plate - gives rise to sensory neurons
and interneurons of the spinal cord’s dorsal
horn.
Basal plate - forms ventral portion of the
spinal cord where motor neurons originate
and the interneurons of the ventral root
form
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous
systems also derive from the basal plate.
Structural Development:
The Developing Ventricular System
Develops in the cavity inside the neural tube,
contains cerebral spinal fluid
Four ventricles:
• Lateral ventricles
• Third ventricle
• Fourth ventricle
Cellular Development: Formation of
Neurons and Glial Cells
A layer of ectodermal cells form on the inner surface
of neural tube and divide to form:
Ventricular layer which then divides into daughter
cells
Daughter cells migrate:

• between the intermediate and marginal layers to form

the cortical plate which develops into the cortex.
• to the subventricular layer, becoming either glial cells
or interneurons.
• daughter cells remaining in the ventricular layer
develop into ependymal cells, which form the lining of
the four ventricles and the central canal of the spinal
cord.
Glial Cell Development
Glial cells also develop from the ventricular layer.
Glial cells develop more after birth.
A major function of glial cells is the myelination of
neurons:
 Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system wrap
themselves around nerve axons; a single Schwann cell
makes up a single segment of an axon's myelin sheath
 Oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system wrap
themselves around numerous axons at once.
Cellular Development: Formation of
Neurons and Glial Cells
Migrating cells
• Guided by radial glial cells
• Glycoproteins allow neurons to bind to other
neurons or radial glial cells (a handhold).
• Failures of the adequate production of
glycoproteins may lead to behavioral deficits.
• Cell migration dysfunction is implicated in
schizophrenia where abnormal distributions of
neurons have been found in the brains of
schizophrenic patients.
Cellular Development: Formation of
Neurons and Glial Cells
Cellular Development: Formation of
Neurons and Glial Cells
Neurogenesis is the formation of new
neurons.
• Few neurons are formed after birth
• Exceptions are:
 cerebellar cells, olfactory receptor neurons,
hippocampal neurons, and some cortical neurons
• These exceptions allow for neuroplasticity.
Neural Cell Differentiation
Cell-autonomous differentiation is controlled by
genetic programming.
• A Purkinje cell will develop into its distinctive form
even if grown in culture out of its environment.

Induction - other cells

influence the final form.
• The notochord influences new
neurons to become a spinal motor
neurons.
Formation of Neural Connections
Once a cell has differentiated, it must establish
connections with other neurons.
 Neurons grow toward target cells
 Axon emerges from growth cone
 Filopodia - consist of spine-like extensions that appear
to be searching
The Movement
of Filopodia and
the Growth
Cone
Formation of Neural Connections:
Axonal Growth
Guidepost cells serve as a map; when the
filopodia reach them, the growth cone adheres to
that cell and the guidepost cells redirect axonal
growth to target cells.
Neurotrophins released by the target cell
• Attract the filopodia of developing neurons
• Repels others to ensure only appropriate axons
move toward the target
Target cell determines the neurotransmitter
released from the presynaptic neuron
The Importance of Neural Activity
Neural activity is necessary for establishing
appropriate neural connections.
Axonal remodeling is the process of axons
connecting to the correct place; selectively
strengthens the synaptic connection
Neural activity “wires” the connections for
communication within the nervous system
New synaptic connections after birth allow
more refined analysis of stimuli and more
varied behavioral responses
Neural Cell Death
Apoptosis - genetically programmed cell death
Synaptic pruning
Theories of cell death
• Neurons compete for connections to target cells and
the unsuccessful ones die.
• Neurons that receive a sufficient amount of
chemical from the target cells survive; neurons that
receive less die.

 Neural development recap

 Disorders of Development: Down
Syndrome
Genetic condition that causes delays in physical
and intellectual development
Most common genetic cause of learning
disabilities in children
Down syndrome results when one of three types
of abnormal cell division involving chromosome
21 occurs
 Trisomy 21
 Mosaic Down Syndrome
 Translocation Down
Syndrome
Neural Degeneration
 Causes
 Tumors
 Seizure Disorders
 Cerebrovascular Accidents
 Degenerative Disorders
 Disorders Caused by Infectious Diseases
• Types of degeneration
 Anterograde
 Retrograde
 Transneuronal
Neural Degeneration: Tumors
 Tumor- Mass of cells whose growth is
uncontrolled and that serves no useful function
 Metastasis- Process by which cells break off a
tumor and grow elsewhere in body
• Tumors damage brain tissue two ways
 Compression
 Infiltration
 Glioma - Cancerous brain tumor
 Meningioma - Benign brain tumor
Neural Degeneration:
Seizure Disorders
Seizure - a period of sudden, excessive activity of
cerebral neurons
 Briefly alters consciousnesses, movement, or actions
 If neurons that make up the motor system are involved,
convulsions can occur
Convulsion – a violent sequence of uncontrollable
muscular movements caused by a seizure
• Hippocrates was the first to note that seizures
might have a physical cause
Classification of Seizure Disorders
I. Generalized Seizures
A.Tonic-clonic (grand mal)
B.Absence (petit mal)
C.Atonic
II. Partial Seizures
A.Simple
1. Localized motor seizure
2. Motor seizure with progression of movements
3. Sensory
4. Psychic
5. Autonomic
B.Complex – includes 1-5 as above
III. Partial seizures evolving to a generalized cortical seizure –
starts as IIA or IIB than becomes a grand mal seizure
Specific Lobe Seizures
 Frontal lobe seizures may produce unusual symptoms
that can appear to be related to a psychiatric problem or
a sleep disorder.
 Temporal lobe seizures may include having odd feelings
such as euphoria, fear, panic and déjà vu.
 Occipital seizures are often mistaken for migraines
because they share symptoms including visual
disturbances, partial blindness, nausea and vomiting,
and headache.
 Parietal lobe seizures can involve both sensory and
visual sensations.
 Cerebrovascular Accidents:
Stroke
 Hemorrhagic stroke
 Caused by the rupture of a cerebral blood vessel
 Most common cause is high blood pressure

 Ischemic stroke
 Caused by the obstruction of blood flow to the brain
 Thrombus – a blood clot that forms within a blood vessel, obstructing blood flow
 Embolus – a piece of matter that dislodges from its site of origin and travels through the system until it reaches a vessel to
small to let it pass thereby obstructing blood flow
Cerebrovascular Accidents:
Effects of a Stroke
Right Brain
 Paralysis on the left side of the body
 Vision problems
 Quick, inquisitive behavioral style
Left Brain
 Paralysis on the right side of the body
 Speech/language problems
 Slow, cautious behavioral style
Hindbrain
 Can affect both sides of the body
 May leave someone in a ‘locked-in’ state
Cerebrovascular Accidents:
Risk Factors for Stroke
 High blood pressure
 Cigarette smoking or exposure to secondhand smoke
 High cholesterol
 Diabetes
 Being overweight or obese
 Physical inactivity
 Obstructive sleep apnea
 Cardiovascular disease
 Use of some birth control pills or hormone therapies that
include estrogen
 Heavy or binge drinking
 Use of illicit drugs
Cerebrovascular Accidents:
Traumatic Brain Injury
 Vehicle-related collisions
 Violence
 Sports injuries
 Falls
 Explosive blasts
Traumatic Brain Injury

Head Games
Degenerative Disorders
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy
Parkinson’s
Huntington’s
Alzheimer’s
Amyotrophic Lateral
Sclerosis (ALS)
Multiple Sclerosis
Degenerative Disorders:
Multiple Sclerosis
Autoimmune demyelinating disease
Myelin protein crosses into general circulation
causing an immune system reaction
Sclerotic plaques interrupt neuronal signals
Disorders Caused by Infectious
Diseases
Viral Encephalitis
 Herpes
 Polio
 Rabies
HIV
Meningitis
Bacteria
 Syphilis
 Lyme Disease
Malaria
Neuroplasticity:
Regeneration of Damaged Neurons
Neural regeneration
• Occurs in embryonic and neonatal nervous system
• In adults usually does not occur in CNS
• Occurs in PNS
Glycoproteins present in mature PNS promote cell
regeneration
Oligodendrocytes synthesize a glycoprotein that
inhibits axonal growth in CNS
Collateral Sprouting – neurons compensate for loss
of neural connections in CNS by sending new
axonal endings to vacated receptor sites
Chromatolysis
Neuroplasticity: Transplantation
Animal research - Substantia nigra damage
has been reduced by implanting fetal tissue
from donors into the damaged area.
Human research - Parkinson’s disease
patients have partial recovery of motor
ability from transplanted fetal tissue.
Ethics - a major debate over the use fetal
stem cells exists, acceptance might be
higher for adult stem cell use
Neuroplasticity: Stem Cells
Embryonic stem cells are
found in an embryo, fetus or
the umbilical cord blood.
Depending upon when they
are harvested, embryonic
stem cells can give rise to
just about any cell in the
human body.

Adult stem cells - found in

infants, children and adults.
They reside in developed
tissues such as those of the
heart, brain and kidney.
They usually give rise to
cells within their resident
organs.