3.

03 Understand Structures, Functions and

Disorders of the Nervous System.

HU40 Health Science I

STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF
THE NEURON (Nerve Cell)
• Dendrite: many tree-like projections
from the neuron that carry messages to
the cell body
• Axon: the single long arm of the
neuron that carries messages away
from the cell body
• Myelin Sheath: insulating layer around
neurons that allow nerve impulses to
be transmitted quickly and efficiently
• Synapse: space separating two
neurons
NERVE IMPULSE
• Stimulus creates an impulse
• Impulse travels into the neuron
on the dendrite and out on the
axon
• At the end of the axon a
NEUROTRANSMITTER is released
• Neurotransmitter carries the
impulse across the synapse to the
next dendrite
Types of Neurons
• Sensory Neurons: sends
information from sensory
receptors (ie. Skin, eyes, ears,
nose, tongue) to the spinal cord
and brain
• Motor Neurons: sends
information from central nervous
system back to body
• Associative: (aka interneurons)
sends information between
sensory and motor neurons
Divisions of the Nervous System
 Divisions Of Nervous System:  
• Central Nervous System:  made up
of brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System:
consists of cranial and spinal
nerves
• Autonomic Nervous System: part
of the peripheral nervous system
that controls involuntary functions
such as heart and smooth muscle
• Somatic Nervous System: part of
peripheral nervous system that
controls voluntary movement via
skeletal muscle
Central Nervous System
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: BRAIN
 CEREBRUM
• Largest part of the brain
• Divided into R and L hemispheres
by a deep grove called the
longitudinal fissure
• Convolutions—elevated folds on
the surface of the cerebrum that
increase surface area of the brain
• Divided into four lobes: Frontal;
Parietal; Occipital and Temporal
FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRUM
• Frontal Lobe: Emotions; Personality;
Morality; Intellect; Speech; Smell
• Parietal Lobe: Receives and interprets
nerve impulses from sensory receptors
for pain, touch, heat and cold
• Occipital Lobe: houses the visual area,
controlling eyesight
• Temporal Lobe: Hearing, facial
recognition
• Cerebral Cortex: Controls conscious
thought, judgment, memory, reasoning
and willpower
Diencephalon
• Located between the cerebrum and midbrain
• Two major structures: thalamus and
hypothalamus
• Vital functions of the hypothalamus:
Autonomic Nervous Control
Cardiovascular Control
Temperature Control
   Appetite Control
   Sleep Control
Limbic System
• Located in the center of the
brain
• Surrounds the brain stem
• Complex set of structures that
includes the hypothalamus,
hippocampus, amygdala, and
several other nearby areas
• Involved with motivation,
emotion, mood and memory
 Cerebellum
• Located behind the pons and
below the cerebrum
• Composed of two hemispheres
• Controls all body functions related
to skeletal muscles, including:
• Balance
• Muscle Tone
• Coordination of muscle movements
Brain Stem
• Made up of PONS, MEDULLA,
and MIDBRAIN
• Controls the flow of messages
between the brain and the body
• Controls basic body functions
such as breathing, swallowing,
heart rate, blood pressure,
consciousness, and whether one
is awake or sleepy
Meninges
• Three membranes that line the
skull and vertebral canal and
protect the brain and spinal cord
• Dura mater: tough outermost
meningeal layer that lines the
skull
• Arachnoid: middle layer of the
meninges that resembles a fine
cobweb
• Pia Mater: delicate inner layer
 Ventricles of the Brain
• Brain has 4 cavities filled with
cerebrospinal fluid called cerebral
ventricles
• Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colorless fluid
that acts as a shock absorber and a source
of nutrients for the brain
• A network of blood vessels lining the
cerebral ventricles called the choroid
plexus produces cerebrospinal fluid
Central Nervous System:  SPINAL CORD
• Begins at foramen magnum
• Continues down to 2nd lumbar
vertebrae
• White and soft in spinal canal
• Surrounded by cerebrospinal
fluid
• Functions as a reflex center and
a conduction pathway to and
from the brain
Peripheral Nervous System
• Made up of all the nerves outside of the
central nervous system (CNS)
• Includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31
pairs of spinal nerves
• Provides a complete network of motor
and sensory fibers connecting the CNS
with the rest of the body
• Divided into two divisions—SOMATIC
nervous system and AUTONOMIC
nervous system
Autonomic Nervous System
• Acts involuntarily to control internal organs and body functions such
as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, and
urination
• Divided into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
• Sympathetic: “Fight or Flight” : When body perceives danger
prepares to run away or stand and fight. Heart rate increases; mouth
becomes dry; pupils and bronchi dilate
• Parasympathetic: Counteracts the effects of the sympathetic nervous
system. For example sympathetic nervous system increases heart
rate and parasympathetic decreases the heart rate.
Nervous System and Communication
• It is through the nervous system
that we communicate with the
outside world
• Our brain controls our emotions,
speech, hearing, vision and
many other processes
• All of these processes affect our
communication with others
Nervous System
Disorders
Alzheimer’s Disease/Dementia
• Progressive degenerative disease of the
brain
• Most common cause of dementia among
people 65 years or older
• Characterized by memory loss and
diminished cognitive function
• Tangles of fibers develop in nerve cells
which interferes with brain function
• Cause is unknown, but age is the most
important risk factor
Cerebral Palsy
• Permanent set of motor problems diagnosed in infants and young
children—thought to be due to damage to the motor cortex
• Risk factors:  low birth weight, premature birth, multiple births, infection
during pregnancy, developmental abnormalities, brain hemorrhage,
perinatal brain injury,  and lack of oxygen
• Symptoms vary from mild foot drag and incoordination to complete
paralysis and the inability to speak
• Some may have developmental delays, autism or seizures.  Many are of
normal or above normal intellect
• Treatment includes physical therapy, occupational therapy, assistive
devices and drugs to control symptoms
Epilepsy
• Seizure disorder
• Seizures believed to be a result of
spontaneous uncontrolled electrical activity of
neurons
• Diagnosed with EEG (electroencephalogram)
• Two types of seizures
• Grand Mal – severe, convulsive seizure.
• Petit Mal – milder (sometimes like someone is just
staring)
• Treatment is anticonvulsant medications
Meningitis
• Infection or inflammation of the
meninges
• Caused by both bacteria and
viral infections
• Symptoms – severe headache
and stiff neck with pain
• Need to seek immediate medical
attention
Multiple Sclerosis
• Disorder in which myelin is destroyed, probably
by autoimmune attack
• The brain, spinal cord and optic nerves are often
involved
• The areas without myelin impairs or prevents
conduction of nerve impulses
• May have impairments in vision, balance, speech or
movement
• Can be relapsing-remitting with flare-ups and
remissions or chronic progressive with no remissions
• More common in women and usually diagnosed in
those under 50
Parkinson’s Disease
• Brain disorder caused by the loss of
dopamine-producing neurons
• Decrease in dopamine leads to shaking,
stiffness, and difficulty with walking, balance,
and coordination
• Symptoms usually begin gradually and get
worse over time
• Later stages affect ability to chew and swallow
• Risk factors: age, heredity, gender and
exposure to toxins
Poliomyelitis
• Contagious viral illness that in its
most severe form causes nerve
injury leading to paralysis,
difficulty breathing and sometimes
death
• Due to vaccination this disease is
almost eradicated in the U.S.
• Despite a worldwide effort to wipe
out polio, it continues to affect
people in parts of Asia and Africa
Spinal Cord Injury
• Damage to the spinal cord that results
in a loss of function, such as mobility
and/or feeling
• Frequent causes of spinal cord injuries
are trauma (car accident, gunshot, falls,
etc.) or disease (polio, spina bifida)
• The level of the injury determines the
extent of loss of function
• Paraplegia: paralysis of legs and lower
body
• Quadriplegia: paralysis of all 4 limbs
Encephalitis
• Inflammation of the brain
• May be caused by a virus (ex. Herpes virus,
West Nile Virus)
• Common symptoms are fever, lethargy,
headache, muscle aches, and extreme
fatigue
• Symptoms may be more severe and include
confusion, hallucinations, paralysis and
unconsciousness
Cerebrovascular  Accident (CVA)
• Stroke or CVA
• Interruption of blood and oxygen to the brain
• Risk factors: Smoking, Hypertension, Heart
disease; Family history
• 90% are caused by blood clots
• Clots lodge in carotid arteries, blocking the
flow of blood to the brain
• 10% caused by ruptured blood vessels in the
brain
Symptoms and Treatment of CVA
• Hemiplegia—on opposite side of Treatment: Get to the hospital
the body immediately
• Sudden, severe headache CT done to determine etiology
• Dizziness If a clot, treatment aimed at
• Sudden loss of vision in one eye dissolving clot
• Aphasia
• Dysphagia
• Coma
• Possible death
Hemiplegia
• Paralysis on one half of the body
• Caused by a brain injury
• Results in a varying degree of
weakness, stiffness (spasticity)
and lack of control in one side of
the body
• Most common cause is stroke
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
• Sudden damage to the brain caused by a blow or jolt
to the head
• Common causes include car or motorcycle crashes,
falls, sports injuries, and assaults
• Ranges from mild concussions to severe permanent
brain damage
• Those who survive a brain injury can face lasting
effects in their physical and mental abilities as well as
emotions and personality
• Most people who suffer moderate to severe TBI will
need rehabilitation to recover and relearn skills.
Concussion
• Mild traumatic brain injury
• Caused by an impact to your head or after a
whiplash-type
• Symptoms include headaches and problems with
concentration, memory, balance and coordination
• Particularly common in contact sports, such as
football
• An athlete with suspected concussion should not
return to play until undergoes medical evaluation
by a health care professional trained in managing
concussions
 Resources
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Additional Resources
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