 Torque on a current loop,

 application to moving-coil meters,

 Ampere law,
 Biot-Savart law.
 Electromagnetic induction,
 Faraday’s law,
 Lenz law,
 Flemings right-hand rule,
 dynamo,
 transformer,
 Eddy current,
 current in L, R circuit,
 self and mutual inductance,
 energy in coil,
 motors and generators
Force on a wire carrying current I in a magnetic field
F  BIl sin  Motors are the most common
application of magnetic force on
current-carrying wires.
The magnetic field exerts torque on
the loops as the current passes
through the loops. This causes a
rotation of a shaft.
The torque τ on a coil of N loops,
each carrying a current I and area
Electrical energy is converted A, in an external uniform
to mechanical work in the magnetic field B is
process.   BIAN sin 
where θ is the angle between the
normal to the plane of the loop and
the direction of the magnetic field.
In vector form,
where A is a vector perpendicular
  N IA  B  to the plane of the loop and has a
magnitude equal to the area of the
loop.
The quantity IA is called the

magnetic dipole moment  of the
coil.
The potential energy of a
magnetic field is given by

U    B
 A galvanometer consists of a coil of wire
loops on a soft iron core that pivots
between the pole faces of a permanent
magnet
The coil experiences a torque when a
current passes through it. A small spring
produces a restoring torque.
k  NIAB
NIAB

k

The sensitivity of a current meter is the deflection per unit current -

 NAB

I k
To increase the sensitivity of a current
meter we should:
•Increase the magnetic field B.
•Decrease the value of k, that is, use weak
springs.
•Increase the number of turns of the coil.
•Increase the area of coil.
The sensitivity of a voltmeter is the
deflection per unit p.d., or

V where φ is the deflection produced
by a p.d. V.
Using the relation V = IR,
 NAB

V kR
 An ammeter measures electric current passing through it and a voltmeter
measures the potential difference between two points.
What are Milliammeters?
To measure a higher current, we connect a
low resistance resistor Rsh, called shunt, in
parallel with the milliammeter/moving-coil
ammeter Figure a.
V  I c Rc  I sh Rsh Why?

where, Ic = current passing

I R
Rsh  c c through the moving-coil
I shammeter and Ish = current
passing through the shunt.
If I is the total current to be measured then I = Ish + Ic.
I  I sh Rc
Rsh 
I sh
To convert a milliammeter to a voltmeter, we connect a high resistance
resistor Rs in series with the milliammeter or the moving-coil voltmeter, as
shown in Figure b.
The resistance Rs is called a multiplier.
If V is the potential difference to be
measured, Rc the resistance of the
milliammeter then
V  IRc  IRs  I Rc  Rs  Explain
 Itstates that the line integral of the
magnetic field (vector B) around any closed
path or circuit is equal to μ0 (permeability of
free space) times the total current (I) flowing
through the closed circuit.
Mathematically,

 
 B. dl   0 I
 Biot and Savart conducted experiments on the
force exerted by an electric current on a
nearby magnet
 They arrived at a mathematical expression

that gives the magnetic field at some point in

space due to a current
Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774 - 1862) and Felix Savart (1791 - 1841)
The Biot-Savart law

states that the magnetic field dB produced by a
current element I dl at point P is given by


 o I dl rˆ where µo is a constant called
dB  permeability of free space:
4 r 2
 o  4  10 7 T .m / A

The total magnetic field is given as


 o I dl rˆ
4  r 2
B

If θ is the angle between the element and the line joining it to P,

then
o Idl sin 
B
4  r2
Magnetic field near a Long Straight, Current-Carrying Wire. At a
perpendicular distance a from a long straight wire carrying a
current I, the magnitude of B is
The direction of B can be determined by applying the right-hand
 I source rule: If a current-carrying wire is grasped with the right hand
B o with the extended thumb pointing in the direction of the current I, the
2a curled fingers indicate the circular sense of the magnetic field
direction.
Magnetic Field at the Center of a Circular Current-Carrying Wire
Loop. At the center of a circular loop of wire of radius r carrying a
current I, the magnitude of B is
o I The direction of B is given by the right-hand source
B rule and is perpendicular to the plane of the loop at its
2r center.
Magnetic Field in a Current-Carrying Solenoid. If the solenoid has N
turns (loops) and carries a current I, the magnitude of the magnetic
field at the center is given by
 o NI
B
L
 The direction of B is given by the right-hand source rule. The expression n =
N/L, or the number of turns per unit length, is called linear turn density. Hence
 o NI
B   o nI
L
The magnetic field at either end is
1
B  o nI
2
Magnetic Field along the Axis of a
Circular Current Loop. The magnetic
field at a point P on the axis of a
circular loop (of radius a) at a
distance x from its center is given as

 o Ia 2
B

2 x a 2 2

3
2
 Consider the field at the center of the current
loop
 At this special point, x = 0
 Then,
μo I a 2 μo I
Bx  
 
3
2 a x2 2 2 2a

◦ This is exactly the same result as from the curved

wire
 Two parallel wires
each carry a steady
current 
 The field B2 due to
the current in wire 2
exerts a force on
wire 1 of F1 = I1ℓ B2
 
 Substituting the equation for
B2 gives
μo I1 I 2
F1  
2πa

◦ Parallel conductors carrying currents in the same

direction attract each other
◦ Parallel conductors carrying current in opposite
directions repel each other
 The result is often expressed as the magnetic
force between the two wires, FB
 This can also be given as the force per unit
length:

FB μo I1 I 2

 2πa
 The force between two parallel wires can be
used to define the ampere
 When the magnitude of the force per unit

length between two long, parallel wires that

carry identical currents and are separated by
1 m is 2 x 10-7 N/m, the current in each wire
is defined to be 1 A
Induced EMF
Almost 200 years ago, Faraday looked for
evidence that a magnetic field would induce
an electric current with this apparatus:
Induced EMF
He found no evidence when the current was
steady, but did see a current induced when
the switch was turned on or off.
Induced EMF
Therefore, a changing magnetic field
induces an emf.
Faraday’s experiment used a magnetic field
that was changing because the current
producing it was changing; the previous
graphic shows a magnetic field that is
changing because the magnet is moving.
 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s law of induction states that the induced emf
in a wire loop is proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the loop.
Magnetic flux:

Unit of magnetic flux: weber, Wb.

1 Wb = 1 T·m2
 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law
This drawing shows the variables in the flux
equation:
 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law
The magnetic flux is analogous to the electric
flux – it is proportional to the total number of
lines passing through the loop.
 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s law of induction:

[1 loop]

[N loops]
 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law
The minus sign gives the direction of the
induced emf:
A current produced by an induced emf moves
in a direction so that the magnetic field it
produces tends to restore the changed field.
 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law
Magnetic flux will change if the area of
the loop changes:
 Faraday’s Law of Induction;
Lenz’s Law
Magnetic flux will change if the angle between
the loop and the field changes:
 EMF Induced in a Moving Conductor
This image shows another way the magnetic
flux can change:
 EMF Induced in a Moving Conductor
The induced current is in a direction that tends
to slow the moving bar – it will take an external
force to keep it moving.
 EMF Induced in a Moving Conductor

The induced emf has magnitude

Measurement of
blood velocity from
induced emf:
 Changing Magnetic Flux Produces an
Electric Field

A changing magnetic flux induces an electric

field; this is a generalization of Faraday’s
law. The electric field will exist regardless of
whether there are any conductors around.
Electric Generators

A generator is the opposite of a motor – it

transforms mechanical energy into electrical
energy. This is an ac generator:

The axle is rotated by an

external force such as
falling water or steam.
The brushes are in
constant electrical
contact with the slip
rings.
Electric Generators

From Faraday’ law, the induced e.m.f. in the

coil is    N d   N d BA cos t 
B

dt dt
  NBA sin t   o sin t
where ɛo = NBAω = peak e.m.f.
Electric Generators

A dc generator is
similar, except that it
has a split-ring
commutator instead of
slip rings.
d.c. generator

In a d.c. generator,
electric current is
supplied externally
through a
commutator.
 Back EMF and Counter Torque; Eddy
Currents
An electric motor turns because there is a
torque on it due to the current. We would
expect the motor to accelerate unless there is
some sort of drag torque.

That drag torque

exists, and is due to
the induced emf, called
a back emf.
 Back EMF and Counter Torque; Eddy
Currents

A similar effect occurs in a generator – if it is

connected to a circuit, current will flow in it,
and will produce a counter torque. This
means the external applied torque must
increase to keep the generator turning.
 Back EMF and Counter Torque; Eddy
Currents
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce
mechanical energy.
The reverse process which involves the use of
mechanical energy to produce electrical energy is
accomplished by a generator or dynamo. When the
armature of a motor rotates, an e.m.f. is induced in its
coils.
This e.m.f. opposes the current which is making the
coils to rotate, according to the Lenz’s law. The
armature current is given as
V  where Ra is the resistance of the armature and V is the
Ia  potential difference applied to the armature by the
Ra
supply, ε is the back emf.

 I a   I aV  I a2 R a = mechanical power developed in motor.

 Transformers and Transmission of
Power

A transformer consists of two coils, either

interwoven or linked by an iron core. A
changing emf in one induces an emf in the
other.
The ratio of the emfs is equal to the ratio of
the number of turns in each coil:
 Transformers and Transmission of
Power

This is a step-up
transformer – the emf
in the secondary coil
is larger than the emf
in the primary:
 Transformers and Transmission of
Power

Energy must be conserved; therefore, in the

absence of losses, the ratio of the currents
must be the inverse of the ratio of turns:
For step-up N S  N P , VS  VP , IS  IP
transformer:
For step-
N S  N P , VS  VP , IS  IP
down
transformer:
 Transformers and Transmission of
Power

Transformers work only if the current is

changing; this is one reason why electricity is
transmitted as ac.
 Self Inductance
When a varying current I passes through a coil, it in turn induces
an e.m.f. in the coil. The self-induced e.m.f. according to
Faraday’s law is
d B d
 L  N   N B  1
dt dt
It can be shown that N  I or N  LI
where L is the constant of proportionality and it is called self
inductance. Therefore, Equation 1 becomes

dI L
 L  L or L
dt dI dt
Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance: a changing current in one
coil will induce a current in a second coil.

And vice versa; note that the constant M,

known as the mutual inductance, is the same:
Inductance

Unit of inductance: the henry, H.

1 H = 1 V·s/A = 1 Ω·s.

A transformer is an
example of mutual
inductance.
Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
Just as we saw that energy can be stored in
an electric field, energy can be stored in a
magnetic field as well, in an inductor, for
example.
The energy stored in the magnetic field of the
inductor is
I I
1 2
U   LIdI  L  IdI  LI
0 0
2

Let us consider a solenoid whose inductance is given

as
L   o n 2 Al
Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
The magnetic field of a solenoid is given as
B   o nI
Substituting the expression for L and I , we have
2
1  B  B2
U   o n Al 
2
  Al
2  o n  2 o

The energy stored per unit volume in the

magnetic field surrounding the inductor is
U U B2
uB   
V Al 2  o
LR Circuit
At time t = 0, as soon as the switch S1 is closed, current
i will begin to increase in the circuit and because of this
increasing current, the inductor will produce e.m.f. that
will oppose this change.
The current at time t is
i
E
R

1  e t /  
where the constant τ is the time constant of
the LR circuit:   L
R

Physically, τ is the time it takes the current in the

circuit to reach1  e 1   0.632 of its final value E R
This implies that, at a time equal to L/R the current has risen to about 63%
of its final value.
LR Circuit
Figure a illustrates the current growth and decay in a R-
L circuit. If the R-L elements are connected via path ‘1’,
we have the current growth, which is given by
i
E
R

1  e t /   1

A plot of Equation 1 is shown in Figure b, where i = 0 at

t = 0.
Now if the battery is removed (path ‘2’ in Figure a) at the
instant when the current in the circuit is Io, then the
t 
current becomes I  I o e (current decays exp onentially
LR Circuit

The plot of the current against time is shown in

Figure c. The time constant, τ = L/R, is the time
for the current to decrease to 1/e, or about 37%,
of its original value.
Examples