Introduction to Bioinformatics:

Biopolymer Sequence and

Structure

Instructor Contact Information:

 John A. Rose, PhD (Assoc. Prof., APU ICT
Institute)
 APU Office: Building B, Room 414
 Phone: x4414
 E-mail: [email protected]
 Website: http://www.apu.ac.jp/~jarose/
Text Material
Primary Text:
 Principles of Physical Biochemistry (Chapters 1-4)
 K. E. van Holde, W. C. Johnson, and P. S. Ho
 Prentice Hall, 1998; ISBN 0-13-720459-0

Supplementary Texts:
 Biophysical Chemistry, Parts I and III
 C. R. Cantor and P. R. Schimmel
 W. H. Freeman and Co., 1980; ISBN 0-71 ６ 7-1189-3.
 Principles of Protein Structure
 G. E. Schultz and R. H. Schirmer
 Springer-Verlag, 1979; ISBN 0-387-90334-8.
 Introduction to Computational Chemistry (Ch. 2 and
Ch. 16)
 F. Jensen
 Wiley, 2001; ISBN 0-471-98425-6
Introduction
Physical Biochemistry –
 addresses the physical properties of
biological macromolecules:
1. Proteins (polypeptides).
2. DNA, RNA (polynucleotides).
3. Sugars (polysaccharides).
 Here, our main focus is on proteins and
polynucleotides.
 the ‘information-carrying’ molecules of life.
 However, the techniques we develop will
also apply to other biological
macromolecules.
Our Focus – Physical
Properties
Physical Properties of biological macromolecules:
 provide a hierarchical description of molecular
structure:
 atomic level;
 molecular level;
 level of large subunit assemblies.

 measured by observing their interaction with

electromagnetic radiation:
 Ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy.
 X-ray crystallography.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), etc.

 An understanding of these properties facilitates

structural prediction.
 Does information about molecule sequence tell us about
structure?
 If so, why??
Secondary Focus

Biophysical Chemistry has 2 points of focus:

 Structural modeling and prediction;

 Structure determination:

 experimental methods.
 methods of interpreting experimental results.

In this course, we focus on structural prediction.

 Goal is to understand the essential physical aspects of

biomolecular structure:
 the role of symmetry;
 the various stabilizing forces;
 solvent contributions to structure;
 statistical distributions over accessible ‘states’ (structures).

Overall Course Goal:

 Acquire the background necessary for work in
Bioinformatics
Relationship to Biochemistry

We note that…Biochemistry
 is also concerned with the structure of

biological macromolecules.
 Focus: biologically important molecular

mechanisms.
 e.g., specific details of active-site chemistry.
 often involves formation/breakage of covalent
bonds.
Biophysical Chemistry has a different focus:
 A quantitative analysis of structure, and…

 The physical properties that determine the

range of structures which are accessible.

 concerned primarily with changes in non-
Our Primary Tools
The first part of the course is mainly descriptive:
 Focus: An overview of water and biopolymer structure.

In Part II, we also develop a tool for structural

prediction:

Statistical Thermodynamics
 uses experimentally determined free energies.
 estimates the probability of occupancy of various folded
structures, at equilibrium.
 also concerns changes in state variables which occur
upon a change of state.
 No description of rates, motion, or times to equilibrium.
Course Organization
(Tentative)
11 Basic Lectures (3 Units) + 1 Research
Lecture:
 Unit 1 – Introduction to Biological Macromolecules
 L1: Introduction and terminology;
 L2-3: Structure of Water, Symmetry Concepts.
 L4-5: Protein Structure
 L6: Nucleic Acid Structure

 Unit 2 – Thermodynamics for Biology

 L7: Heat, Work, Energy, and the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics.
 L8: Entropy, Free energy, Equilibrium, and the 2nd Law.

 Unit 3 – Statistical Thermodynamics

 L9: Introduction to Modeling.
 L10: Structural Transitions in Polypeptides/Proteins.
Course Evaluation (Grading)

The final grade (100%) will be awarded using

the following criteria for evaluation (tentative):
 Attendance: 20%
 Students should come to each class.
 Note 1: students with more than 3 unexcused absences
will receive an automatic F grade in the
course.
 Note 2: points will be deducted for lateness and
breaking lab rules.
 Mid-term Exam: 35%
 An in-class test after Lecture 6 (tentative)

 Final Examination: 45%

 A comprehensive, in class test over all course material.

Note:
 The above weights/items are subject to change.
Lecture 1 – Introduction to
Biophysical Chemistry
Lecture 1 Outline:
 1.1 Basic Terminology.
 1.2 Review of Monomer Stereochemistry.
 1.3 Weak Interactions in Macromolecular Structure.
Definition of ‘Molecule’

Chemistry –
 a molecule…
 contains 2 or more atoms;
 atoms covalently (tightly) bonded in specific proportions;
 i.e., chemical formula (stoichiometry).
 also has a specific geometry.

Biochemistry takes a larger view…

 a molecule:
 also has well-defined stoichiometry and geometry;
 not readily dissociated…but, bonds not necessarily
covalent.
 e.g.: Hemoglobin has 4 distinct polypeptide subunits:
 each is a covalently-linked polymer chain.
 each chain is called a monomer.
 monomers may be held together by non-covalent
interactions.
Basic Definition: Structure
Stoichiometry often expressed by monomer
composition:

In any case, structure refers to the unique, linear

The Biological
‘Macromolecule’
Simply put…a macromolecule is a large
molecule.
 By ‘large’, we mean large enough to be conveniently
divided into distinct subunits.
 May be several levels of decomposition into
‘monomers’.

For us, a macromolecule is typically a

‘biopolymer’:
 i.e., is composed of a string of monomer subunits.
 Proteins: amino acid residues.
 RNA and DNA: nucleic acid residues.
 Polysaccharides: sugar residues.
 This decomposition admits a useful notion of size:
 ‘oligomer’: length <= 25 monomer subunits.
 ‘polymer’: length > 25 monomer subunits.
The Hierarchical Structure of
Biopolymers
Monomers – basic repetitive subunits.

Primary Structure (1o)

 linear sequence of monomers…
 with a specific strand orientation.

Secondary Structure (2o)

 the local, regular structure of biomolecules.
 these are helical structures.

Tertiary Structure (3o)

 global, 3-D fold or topology.
 = native structure, for single-subunit biopolymers.

Quaternary Structure (4o)

 spatial arrangement of multiple, covalently distinct
subunits.
Illustrative Example
Hierarchical Structure of Hemoglobin:

Not all biopolymers have all 4 levels of

structure.
o
 but, at least 2 structure required for function…
 Functionality usually requires a correlation:
 Between sequence and shape (Anfinsen).
The Folding Problems of
Biophysical Chemistry
Function intimately related to Shape:
 e.g.: ‘Lock and Key’ model of enzyme action.

A Primary Goal of Biophysical Chemistry:

 understanding the rules relating the 4 levels…
 prediction of 2o and 3o structure from 1o structure.
 Best-known: the Protein Folding Problem;
 currently unsolved.
 A Folding problem exists for each biopolymer class.

Before examining biopolymer structure,

 let’s first review ome general principles…
Configuration vs.
Conformation
The arrangement of atoms or groups in a
molecule is described by two terms:
 Configuration – refers to the arrangement around:
 one or more non-rotating bonds, or
 around a stereocenter (chiral center).
 Change of configuration requires a chemical change….
 Breaking one or more covalent bonds.
 Conformation – arrangement about freely rotating
bonds.
 change of conformation does not require a chemical
change.

Both describe the spatial geometry of

biopolymers.
 However, they are very different terms.
Configuration
Configuration refers to the position of atoms/groups:
 around one or more non-rotating bonds.
 Or, around a stereocenter.
Change of configuration requires a chemical change:
 breaking and remaking chemical bonds.
Example 1: Rotation about a double bond…

 requires breakage of a π-bond…

 with rotation through an sp3 intermediate.
Configuration (cont.)
Example 2: Conversion b/w Enantiomers.
 i.e., molecules which are non-super-imposable mirror
images.
 Conversion b/w L- and D-Glyceraldehyde…

 requires breakage of a single bond;

 formation of a planar, achiral intermediate.
Conformation
Conformation refers to the spatial arrangement
about freely rotating bonds.
 conformation can be changed by rotations about single
bonds;
 does not require a chemical change.
 different conformations of the same molecule are called
structural isomers.
Example:
 Rotation about the central bond of 1,2-dicholoroethane.
Monomer Stereochemistry
The monomer building-blocks of
biopolymers are almost always chiral
molecules.
 exhibit definite ‘handedness’.
 there are thus, two distinct forms…
 L-form - ‘left-handed’
 D-form - ‘right-handed’.
 these are mirror images, and are not super-
imposable.
 referred to as enantiomers.
 Note: these are also called the S and R forms, as
well.
 Enantiomers are distinct molecules.
Example: L vs. D-
Glyceraldehyde
Each chiral center…
 has 4 attached groups.
2. Assign group
priorities:
 a (highest) to d
(lowest).
 first basis: atomic mass
of directly connected
atom.
 next basis: atomic
masses of next closest
atoms, etc.
3. Rotate d into the
plane.
Chirality and Biopolymers
Biopolymers are generally constructed of
only one enantiomer…
 Each type of monomer units either L- or D-form…
 Required for formation of regular helices;
 This facilitates a correlation between 1o and 2o
structure.
 Amino acids in natural proteins are usually L-
form.
 Sugar moiety of the nucleotides which compose
DNA (2’-Deoxyribose) is D-form.
Handedness has biological implications:
 distinct handedness lends specificity to 3-point
contact.
Handedness also has geometric
Macromolecular Conformation
Macromolecule conformation described by:
 conformation of each freely rotating bond.
For a biopolymer, the set of accessible
conformations:
 ＝ the structural isomers generated by these rotations.
Traditionally, conformation about each single
bond:
 described in terms of a 4-atom center, A-B-C-D defined
by the rotating bond, where…
 B-C is the rotating bond.
 A and D are the bulky (non-hydrogen) groups of the
connected, tetrahedral centers.
Example: 1,2-Dichoroethane.
 4 atom center: Cl-C-C-Cl.
The Torsion and Dihedral
Angles
Conformation of a 4-atom center
conveniently described in terms
of:
 the torsion angle, Θ :
 defined between planes ABC and
DCB…
 …relative to A (looking down BC).
 Θ = 0o when A and D are in cis.
 (+) Θ defined as CW rotation of D.
 Standard for polymer chemistry…
An equivalent description is the
dihedral angle, φ:
 In Geometry:
 Angle b/w normals of planes ABC and
BCD.
Θ + φ = 180o (see figure)
 Thus: Θ and ϕ supplementary.
 In Polymer Chemistry (slightly
Descriptive Notation
Conformation also traditionally described in
terms of:
 relative placement of the bulky groups, A and D.
 Syn/Anti:
 bulkiest groups on the same/opposite side of a
plane through central bond, B-C.
 Eclipsed/Staggered:
 bonds A-B and C-D overlapping/non-overlapping.
The Impact of Conformational
Changes
A conformational change in a
biopolymer can result in large changes
in physical properties.
 Example: Protein Denaturation
 The properly folded conformation of a
protein…
 is biologically active.
 the ‘native state’.
 In contrast, the unfolded conformation
 is not biologically active.
 the ‘denatured state’.
Thus, Conformation and Configuration
 Each has important implications for
biopolymer shape and function;
Molecular Interactions in
Macromolecular Structures
For a macromolecule in a cellular environment:
 configuration is fixed by covalent bonding.
 conformations, however, are highly variable…
The sequence-dependent folding of a
biopolymer:
 is no more than a change in conformation.
 is dependent on a number of interactions:
 between the atoms within the biopolymer.
 between the biopolymer and its environment.

A detailed description of stabilizing

interactions will be presented later on...
 with implications for modeling biopolymers.
 Here, we give a brief description…
Covalent vs. Weak
Interactions
The configurations of biopolymers are fixed:
 because covalent bonds require much energy to break...
 Interaction Energies ∼ 200 – 800 kJ/mol
 in contrast, thermal energy: RT = 2.58 kJ/mol (37o C).
 Note 1: 1 mole of a particular molecule = 6.023 x 1023 copies
 Note 2: Joule = a unit of energy equal to 1 Newton-meter

 at ambient temperatures, can be treated as invariant (fixed).

 In other words, our molecules do not shake apart at room temperature!

The conformations of biopolymers:

 stabilized by weak interactions.
 1-2 orders of magnitude smaller than covalent interactions.
 Only ∼ 1 order of magnitude (10x) greater than RT.
 These interactions describe how the atoms or groups attract or
repel…
 Together, determine the total energy of a given conformation.
 Rule: the lower the energy…the more favorable the structure.
The Weak Interactions
The conformations of
biopolymers:
 determined by weak
interactions.
The ‘Weak’ Interactions:
 also called ‘non-bonding’.
 much weaker than
covalent interactions.
 1 to 10’s of kJ/mol.
 include:
 Electrostatic (charge-
charge).
 Dipole-dipole, charge-dipole.
 van der Waals.
 Hydrogen bonding.
Distance-dependence of the
Weak Interactions
Are all pairwise, distance-dependent
interactions.
 Energy of each ∼ 1/rm. ; m = 1, 2, 3, 6, 12 (integer).
 r = separation between a pair of interacting atoms or
groups.
The range of the interaction determined by m.
 for larger m values, V falls to zero more rapidly, with
increasing r.
 Longest range: Charge-Charge interaction (m = 1).
 Shortest range: Steric repulsion (m = 12).
Dependence on the Medium
The energies of long-range interaction all
depend on the intervening medium.
 Coulombic, charge-dipole, dipole-dipole.

Example:
 Interaction b/w 2 charges becomes shielded in a
polar or polarizable medium.
 Example: Water
 dipoles of the medium line up to oppose the E-field.
 Result: Interaction is weakened.
The Dielectric Constant
Long-range interactions all reduced by a factor
of 1/κ.
 the dielectric constant.
 κ = ε/εo = Eo/E
 ε, εο = permittivity of our medium, and of free
space, respectively.
 a measure of medium polarizability.
 a vacuum is the least polarizable medium (κ = 1).
 Protein interior: κ ≅ 2-20.
 water much more polarizable (κ ≅ 80, for isolated
H20).
Thus, the environment is a stabilizing factor for
biopolymer structure.
 long-range interactions greatly weakened in Aq.
solution.
Conclusion
In this Lecture we have discussed:
 Some basic definitions.
 The structural hierarchy of biological molecules:
 1o through 4o structure.
 The difference between the related terms:
 ‘configuration’ and ‘conformation’.
 Here, we focus on biopolymer conformation.
 The various molecular interactions which determine
macromolecular structure:
 Bonding interaction (covalent).
 Non-bonding interactions (weak).
 Including the effect of the intervening medium (κ).
In the next Lectures,
 we begin our discussion of biopolymer structure with:
 A discussion of Cellular Environments,
 An Introduction to concepts of Symmetry.