Nervous System

Nervous System
Neurophysiology
Neurophysiology
 Neurons are highly irritable
 Action potentials, or nerve impulses,
are:
 Electrical impulses carried along the length
of axons
 Always the same regardless of stimulus
 The underlying functional feature of the

nervous system
Electricity Definitions
 Voltage (V) – measure of potential energy
generated by separated charge
 Potential difference – voltage measured
between two points
 Current (I) – the flow of electrical charge
between two points
 Resistance (R) – hindrance to charge flow
 Insulator – substance with high electrical
resistance
 Conductor – substance with low electrical
resistance
Electrical Current and the
Body
 Reflects the flow of ions rather than
electrons
 There is a potential on either side of
membranes when:
 The number of ions is different across the
membrane
 The membrane provides a resistance to ion
flow
Role of Ion Channels
 Types of plasma membrane ion channels:
 Passive, or leakage, channels – always open
 Chemically gated channels – open with binding
of a specific neurotransmitter
 Voltage-gated channels – open and close in
response to membrane potential
 Mechanically gated channels – open and close in
response to physical deformation of receptors
Operation of a Gated
Channel
 Example: Na+-K+ gated channel
 Closed when a neurotransmitter is not
bound to the extracellular receptor
 Na+ cannot enter the cell and K+ cannot exit
the cell
 Open when a neurotransmitter is
attached to the receptor
 Na+ enters the cell and K+ exits the cell
Operation of a Gated Channel
Figure 11.6a
Operation of a Voltage-
Gated Channel
 Example: Na+ channel
 Closed when the intracellular
environment is negative
 Na+ cannot enter the cell
 Open when the intracellular environment
is positive
 Na+ can enter the cell
Operation of a Voltage-
Gated Channel
Figure 11.6b
Gated Channels
 When gated channels are open:
 Ions move quickly across the membrane
 Movement is along their electrochemical
gradients
 An electrical current is created
 Voltage changes across the membrane

Electrochemical Gradient
 Ions flow along their chemical gradient when
they move from an area of high concentration
to an area of low concentration
 Ions flow along their electrical gradient when

they move toward an area of opposite charge
 Electrochemical gradient – the electrical and

chemical gradients taken together
Resting Membrane Potential (Vr)
 The potential difference (–70 mV) across the

membrane of a resting neuron
 It is generated by different concentrations

of Na+, K+, Cl, and protein anions (A)
 Ionic differences are the consequence of:

 Differential permeability of the neurilemma to Na+
and K+
 Operation of the sodium-potassium pump
Resting Membrane Potential
(Vr)
Figure 11.8
Membrane Potentials: Signals
 Used to integrate, send, and receive
information
 Membrane potential changes are
produced by:
 Changes in membrane permeability to ions
 Alterations of ion concentrations across
the membrane
 Types of signals – graded potentials and
action potentials
Changes in Membrane
Potential
 Changes are caused by three events

 Depolarization – the inside of the
membrane becomes less negative
 Repolarization – the membrane returns to
its resting membrane potential
 Hyperpolarization – the inside of the
membrane becomes more negative than the
resting potential
Changes in Membrane Potential
Figure 11.9
Graded Potentials
 Short-lived, local changes in membrane
potential
 Decrease in intensity with distance
 Their magnitude varies directly with the
strength of the stimulus
 Sufficiently strong graded potentials
can initiate action potentials
Graded Potentials
Figure 11.10
Graded Potentials
 Voltage changes in graded potentials

are decremental
 Current is quickly dissipated due to the
leaky plasma membrane
 Can only travel over short distances
Graded Potentials
Figure 11.11
Action Potentials (APs)
 A brief reversal of membrane potential with a
total amplitude of 100 mV
 Action potentials are only generated by
muscle cells and neurons
 They do not decrease in strength over
distance
 They are the principal means of neural
communication
 An action potential in the axon of a neuron is
a nerve impulse
Action Potential: Resting State
 Na+ and K+ channels are closed

 Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+
and K+
 Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated
gates
 Activation gates –
closed in the resting
state
 Inactivation gates –
open in the resting
state
Figure 11.12.1
Action Potential: Depolarization
Phase
 Na+ permeability increases; membrane
potential reverses
 Na+ gates are opened; K+ gates are closed
 Threshold – a critical level of depolarization
(-55 to -50 mV)
 At threshold,
depolarization
becomes
self-generating
Figure 11.12.2
Action Potential: Repolarization
Phase
 Sodium inactivation gates close
 Membrane permeability to Na+ declines to
resting levels
 As sodium gates close, voltage-sensitive K+
gates open
 K+ exits the cell and
internal negativity
of the resting neuron
is restored
Figure 11.12.3
Action Potential: Hyperpolarization
 Potassium gates remain open, causing an

excessive efflux of K+
 This efflux causes hyperpolarization of the
membrane (undershoot)
 The neuron is
insensitive to
stimulus and
depolarization
during this time
Figure 11.12.4
Action Potential:
Role of the Sodium-Potassium Pump
 Repolarization
 Restores the resting electrical conditions
of the neuron
 Does not restore the resting ionic
conditions
 Ionic redistribution back to resting
conditions is restored by the sodium-
potassium pump
Phases of the Action Potential
 1 – resting state
 2 – depolarization
 3 – repolarization
 4–
hyperpolarization
Propagation of an Action Potential
(Time = 0ms)
 Na+ influx causes a patch of the axonal

membrane to depolarize
 Positive ions in the axoplasm move
toward the polarized (negative) portion
of the membrane
 Sodium gates are shown as closing, open,
or closed
Propagation of an Action Potential
(Time = 0ms)
Figure 11.13a
Propagation of an Action
Potential (Time = 1ms)
 Ions of the extracellular fluid move
toward the area of greatest negative
charge
 A current is created that depolarizes
the adjacent membrane in a forward
direction
 The impulse propagates away from its
point of origin
Figure 11.13b
 The action potential moves away from

the stimulus
 Where sodium gates are closing,
potassium gates are open and create a
current flow
Propagation of an Action Potential (Time
= 2ms)
Figure 11.13c
Threshold and Action Potentials
 Threshold – membrane is depolarized by 15 to

20 mV
 Established by the total amount of current
flowing through the membrane
 Weak (subthreshold) stimuli are not relayed
into action potentials
 Strong (threshold) stimuli are relayed into
action potentials
 All-or-none phenomenon – action potentials
either happen completely, or not at all
Absolute Refractory Period
Figure 11.15
Relative Refractory Period
 The interval following the absolute
refractory period when:
 Sodium gates are closed
 Potassium gates are open
 Repolarization is occurring
 The threshold level is elevated, allowing

strong stimuli to increase the frequency
of action potential events
Conduction Velocities of Axons
 Conduction velocities vary widely among

neurons
 Rate of impulse propagation is
determined by:
 Axon diameter – the larger the diameter,
the faster the impulse
 Presence of a myelin sheath – myelination
dramatically increases impulse speed
Saltatory Conduction
 Current passes through a myelinated
axon only at the nodes of Ranvier
 Voltage-gated Na+ channels are
concentrated at these nodes
 Action potentials are triggered only at
the nodes and jump from one node to the
next
 Much faster than conduction along
unmyelinated axons
Saltatory Conduction
Figure 11.16

Nervous System

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Nervous System

 The underlying functional feature of the

 Voltage changes across the membrane

 Ions flow along their electrical gradient when

 Electrochemical gradient – the electrical and

 The potential difference (–70 mV) across the

 It is generated by different concentrations

 Ionic differences are the consequence of:

 Changes are caused by three events

 Voltage changes in graded potentials

 Na+ and K+ channels are closed

 Potassium gates remain open, causing an

 Na+ influx causes a patch of the axonal

 The action potential moves away from

 Threshold – membrane is depolarized by 15 to

 The threshold level is elevated, allowing

 Conduction velocities vary widely among

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