INTRODUCTION TO

EXPERIMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Tooba Arshad
Institute of Professional Psychology, Bahria
University- Karachi Campus
Definition
• Experimental Psychology is the study of psychological
issues that uses experimental procedures

• The branch of psychology dealing with the study of

emotional and mental activity, as learning, in humans and
other animals by means of experimental methods

• Discover the process underlying the behavior and

cognition

• Conducts research with the help of experimental methods

• What is the difference b/w research and experiment?

What is Experimental Psychology?
• The phrase “experimental psychology” refers to

• A specific methodological approach to the study of

psychology

• As well as to several specific areas of research within

psychology which predominantly use experimental
methods
Who is an Experimental Psychologist?
A psychological scientist who:

• Primarily uses the experimental method to study behavior

• Answers questions about the when, where, and why of

behavior by careful manipulation and control of relevant
variables

• Carefully records and conducts quantitative analysis of the

behavioral data

• Insists on the cautious and parsimonious interpretation of

those empirical data in the light of both familiar and
innovative theoretical interpretations
Nature
• Methodological approach rather than a subject and
encompass varied fields within psychology

• To explore any area of psychology that can be studied

through experiments

• Experimental psychology involves the collection of reliable

and quantifiable behavioral data

• Often empirical tests are conducted under controlled

conditions in order to study a particular psychological
phenomenon or to test hypotheses concerning that
phenomenon
Scope
• Neuroscience • Memory
• Developmental • Thinking
psychology • Language
• Sensation • Motivation
• Perception • Emotion
• Attention • Social psychology
• Consciousness
• Learning
Example
• Interpersonal relations between people of different statuses
• The eye movements of new born children
• Personality traits
• The etiology of schizophrenia
• Brain patterns of people solving problems
• Attractiveness of average faces

• These topics can be studied through personal experience

and subjective arguments - nonscientific and unreliable
• Subjective analysis needs prescribed method for valid and
reliable conclusion
Experiments
• Aristotle’s method of rational logic versus Galileo’s
method of experimentation
• Acceleration of falling objects
• Aristotle “common sense logic”
• Galileo's experiment
• Statement of hypothesis
• Observation
• Replicability
• Development of law
• Control problems
Definition of Experiment
• Experiment is an observation of behavior under controlled
conditions

• The word “experiment” is derived from the Latin word

experimentum, means ‘a trail’ or ‘test’

• Eysenck (1996) “ An experiment is the planned

manipulation of variables in which at least one of the
variables that is the Independent Variable (IV) is altered
under the predetermined conditions during the
experiment.”
• Jahoda “Experiment is the method of testing hypothesis”

• Festinger and Katz “ The essence of experiment may be

described as observing the effect of DV after the
manipulation of IV”

• It is the arrangement of conditions or procedures for

testing and hypothesis

Control IV to establish cause and effect r/s

 Psychological Experiments
• Refers to investigations in which at least one variable is
manipulated in order to study cause-and-effect r/s

• Includes manipulations of some variables, control and

ascertains of effects on another variables

• Like Galileo psychologist also work on the lawful

assumptions of nature

• Only the subject matter and technical equipment is

different
• Psychologist study thoughts and behaviors

• The subject matter and scientific tools separate the

disciplines while experimentation unites the scientists
Center of experimental methods in
psychology

• Control of extraneous variables

• Minimizing the potential for experimenter bias

• Counterbalancing the order of experimental tasks

• Adequate sample size

• The use of operational definitions (reliable and valid)

Aims of Experimental Psychology

• Study human behavior in a different context

• Description of behavior using careful observations

• Explanation identifying the cause(s) of behavior

• Prediction allows for specification of the conditions under

which a behavior will or will not occur
• George C. Homans (1967) “what makes science (is)
its aims, not its results: if it aims at establishing more
or less general relationships b/w properties of nature,
when the test of the truth of a relationship lies finally
in the data themselves, then the subject is science”

• Scientific inquiry of psychology: reveal the underlying

reality to behavior and thoughts through scientific
analysis

• Basic assumption: human is basically a system that

may be understood through scientific experimentation
and rational analysis
Types of Research
Basic Research Applied Research

• Establishes a reservoir of • Established concepts are

data, theoretical further researched and
explanations, and applied
concepts • Concept application
• Concept development • Basic aim at solving
• No immediate practical specific problems
goals • E.g. How to cure
• E.g : what is bedwetting? bedwetting
• Basic Research
the process of collecting and analyzing information to
develop or enhance a theory
Comes from observation

• Applied Research
conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and
evaluating its usefulness for solving problems
Comes from prior theories and researches

You cannot confirm a theory-you can support it

Scientific Context of Experiments
Three basic techniques
Experimental Psychologists uses three basic techniques:
• Introduce an element in a controlled environment and
measures its effect on thought or action

• Select a group that has certain well-defined characteristics

and measure the psychological characteristics of that group,
usually contrasting those characteristics with a control group

• Observe behavior in a naturalistic environments and make

empirical measurement of psychological characteristics

• Spallanzani’s Experiment
Basic Steps in Experimental Process
Hypothesis

Design Experiment

Perform Experiment

Make Observations

Conclusion
Hypothesis
• Is a tentative statement that is being checked
• It tells the relationship which researcher expects to find
b/w IV and DV
• Halpern (1989) “ A hypothesis is a tentative set of beliefs
about the nature of the world, a statement about what
you expect to happen if certain conditions are true.”
• Effect of IV on DV, r/s b/w IV and DV
• E.g. Music will increase the learning of students
• One tail/ Directional hypothesis
• Two tail/ non-directional hypothesis
• Example????
Operational Definition
• It is the statement of operations necessary to produce and
measure a concepts

• a description of something in terms of the operations (procedures,

actions, or processes) by which it could be observed and
measured

• It defines the concepts in terms of how it is measured

Necessary to do a creditable research as they:

• Communicates effectively
• Replicate
• Retains full meaning of the concept even though variability is
there
• Easy to define concrete concepts like time

• Abstract concepts: difficult to define empirically; anxiety,

intelligence, hostility etc.

• Psychological concepts are tied to the objective

circumstances

• Uses scales or tests

• Suited for the specific research question
• Example??????
Effect of modality of
teaching on learning of
students
On campus
Modality
Online
Hypothesis
• Students will learn better in on
campus classes as compare to
online classes
• The modality teaching will effect
the learning of students / the
learning of students will differ in
online vs on campus classes
Learning
• It is the understanding of the concept
(Conceptual) which will be measured
through a test.

• The higher the score is the better the

learning is (Operational).
Modality
• The modality is defined as the contact
with the students ….

• When students have in person contact

with the teacher its called on campus
and when they will be virtually
contacted it will be called online.
Effect of Social Media (IV) on
Emotional Intelligence (DV) of
Adolescents (Population)

• Hypothesis?
• Operational definitions?
Eg Hypothesis:
• Use of SM will effect the EI of
adolescents
• Use of SM will negatively
effect EI of …
• The more the use of SM the
less the EI of …..
Operational definitions:
• Social Media: The total of hours
mentioned by the phone (App XYZ). The
usage more 3 hours is excessive use of SM
while 1 hour is moderate use of SM

• EI: recognition and utilization of

emotions which will be measured
through Maleeha EI test. The
higher the score is the more EI is.
Adolescents
• Adolescents are the individuals
who lives in the age range of
13-18
Variables
• D’ Amato (2004) “Any measurable attributes of those
attributes, qualities and characteristics of objects, events,
things or beings”

• Characteristics or conditions that are manipulated,

controlled or observed by the experimenter

• In a scientific investigation- any condition that may change

in quantity or quality

• Intelligence, anxiety, aptitude, income, education,

authoritarianism, achievement
Independent & Dependent Variables
• In an experiment one variable is manipulated and its
effect on the other variable is observed
• The manipulated variable is Independent Variable (IV)
• The variable whose reaction is being observed in called
Dependent Variable (DV)
• Psychologist see the effect of
one variable on other
• Cause-and-effect relationship
• Experimental, controlled, or treatment variables

• It is the if part of the “If------- then --------” statement of the

hypothesis
• The variable on the basis of which predictions are made
 Theory of control
• Precise effect of one variable on other

• By holding some variable constant or manipulating

• Simple Experiment

Stage 1 Stage 2
Semen + Sperm Semen – Sperm
(Control Condition) (Experimental Condition)
• Simple Experiment: one IV and one DV

• DV mostly answers the research questions of the

experimenters’ questions

• Dependent Responses: Interest of Psychologists

Types of IVs
• First: experimenters systematically manipulates the
variable (the amount of Reward; Type- E)

• Second: selection of the subjects on the basis of

certain characteristics of interest (I.Q, Age; Type-S)
Experimenter- manipulated IV
• Lorge (1930) Massed vs distributed practice
• Tracing stars (20 trails)

• 3 groups (no interval, interval of an hour, interval of 24 hrs)

• The shorter the time interval the better the results

• No interval, interval of an hour, interval of 24 hrs are controlled

IVs

• The time to trace the stars in the DV

• Constant factors: same task and number of trials

• IV DV???
• Hypothesis???
• Operational Definition???
 Example from Social Psychology
• Asch (1952) Law of Primacy
• 2 groups

List of adjectives
• Intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn,
envious

• Primacy information

• The order of adjectives is IV

• Impression of the person is DV

Experimenter-selected IV
• Some characteristics that cannot be controlled or
manipulated

• Selection of subjects on the basis of the presence or

absence of those characteristics

• IQ, authoritarianism, gender, race, presence of male

hormones, personality types, diagnostic classification,
age, social status

• Example: Impact of authoritarianism on learning

• Bebow and Stanely (1980) differentiate between
mathematical skills of boys and girls

• 9,927 students performed mathematical portion of SAT

• Boys scored significantly higher

• EP is the study of manipulated IVs but in some cases we

have to select the IVs
Classification of IVs
• Underwood (1906) classified IV’s on the basis of
manipulation

Task Variables

Environmental Variables

Subject Variables

• Depends on the operational definition

• Example????
DV
• Any measured behavioral variable of interest to the
experimenter in a psychological investigation is DV

• Change in DV depends upon the change in IV

• Underwood described it as response variable

• In “If---------then-------” statement it is the then part of the

hypothesis

• Change in IV can cause change in DV but not vice versa

Experimental & Control Groups

• The Experimental Group: receives the experimental

treatment- manipulation by the experimenter

• Control Group: treated like the experimental group but

did not receive the treatment

• Different levels on IV on the basis of the treatment

• Spallanzani Experiment: Sperm-free filters were
experimental group
• Supa, Cotzin and Dallenbach (1944) blind people
• Exp Group 1: No Facial vision (wore veils and gloves)
• Exp Group 2: No auditory cues (wore ear plugs)
• Control Group

• Obstacles: screens

• Why do we need a control group??

• Placebo control group??
Paul (1966) treating speech phobia
• 4 groups from public speaking class

• Exp Group 1: Behavior therapy (100%)

• Exp Group 2: Insight therapy (60%)
• Exp Group 3: placebo pills (73%)
• Group 4: control group (32%)

• Ensures that it is the effect of IV not other variables

• Control group controls the experimenters bias
• Also provides the baselines
Blind
• The term blindness reference to the hiding of the
treatment process that has been introduced in the exp
groups from the participants

• Single blind (nest building)

• Double blind (Paul’s experiment)

Extraneous Variables
• Which are more or less similar to IV or variables that have
the capacity to influence the DV

• Control means the exercise of the scientific method

whereby the various treatments in an exp are regulated so
that casual factors may be unambiguously identified

• Best research design-

• full control of extraneous variables
Confounding Variables
• Variables other than the IV that is not equivalent in all
conditions
• Mistakenly manipulated along with the IV

• Lead towards wrong conclusion

• Random assignment can reduce that

• Random: not a thing, but to the lack of thing, lack of

pattern, structure or regularity
Difference between Extraneous and
Confounding
• An extraneous variable is a variable that MAY interfere
with the independent variable in explaining the outcome
of a study.

• A confounding variable is a variable that DOES cause a

problem because it is empirically related to both the
independent and dependent variable.
Methods to Control
• Randomization: technique in which each member of the
population or universe at large has an equal and
independent chance of being selected in the groups
Phases of Randomization
Random selection of subjects
Random assignment of subjects
Random assignment of treatment
• Helps to reduce the effect of extraneous variables
• Basically it distributes the extraneous effect equally in
each group
• Large sample
Experimental Design
• The design of controlled conditions under which one might
make empirical observations of actions, thoughts, or
behavior of humans or animals within the context of
testable hypothesis, that leads towards anticipated r/s b/w
the conditions of an experiment and its outcome
Strategies
• Laboratory Experiments
• Field Experiments
Laboratory Experiments
• A further difficulty with the experimental method is
demand characteristics.
• Demand characteristics are all the cues which convey
to the participant the purpose of the experiment.
• If a participant knows they are in an experiment they
may seek cues about how they think they are expected
to behave.
• Another problem with the experimental method
concerns ethics.
• For example, experiments often involve deceiving
participants to some extent.
• However, it is possible to obtain a level of informed
consent from participants.
Field Experiments
• Experiment that is conducted in a “real world” situation.
• Participants are not usually aware that that they are
participating in an experiment.
• The IV is still manipulated unlike in natural experiments.
• High in ecological validity and may avoid demand
characteristics as the participants are unaware of the
experiment.
• Harder to control confounding variables
• Time consuming and expensive to conduct.
• Not usually possible to gain informed consent from the
participants and it is difficult to debrief the participants.
Types of Experimental Designs
• Single-group or Within-subjects Experimental
Designs
• Subjects plays the role of the control as well
• Goes through all conditions /levels of IVs

• Separate Group or Between Subjects Experimental

Designs
• Being used to measure several IVs
• Different groups are made on the basis of their
characteristics or randomly assigned
• Each subject or group goes under one condition only
Trial Position Effect under Massed & Distributed
Practice
• The spacing effect is the phenomenon whereby animals
(including humans) more easily remember or learn items when
they are studied a few times spaced/distributed over a long
time span ("spaced/distributed presentation") rather than
repeatedly studied in a short span of time ("
massed presentation").
• The phenomenon was first identified by Hermann Ebbinghaus.
• Practically, this effect suggests that "cramming" (intense, last-
minute studying) the night before an exam is not likely to be as
effective as studying at intervals in a longer time frame.
• Important to note, however, is that the benefit of spaced
presentations does not appear at short retention intervals, in
which massed presentations tend to lead to better memory
performance.
• Lee & Genvose have found out the influence of
distribution of practice conditions (through analysis of
empirical studies) on learning and performance of motor
skills.

Distributed practice enhances performance

Effects of distributed practice are larger on the
performance than the first trail
It results in greater learning
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