Dispersed system

colloids
By:
Dr. Hina Saleem
Assistant Professor
Department of Pharmaceutics,
Dow College Of Pharmacy,
D.U.H.S.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, students will be able to;
• Describe disperse system and its types
• Describe different types of colloidal system
• Differentiate between different types of colloid system and their
main characteristics
• Describe different methods for the preparation of colloids
• Describe the methods for the purification of colloids
• Understand the main properties of the colloids and application of
these properties for the analysis of colloids
• Discuss the stability of colloids
 Course Outline

• DISPERSED SYSTEM
– Colloids: Types, methods of preparation, properties (optical, kinetic,
electrical) Dialysis and artificial kidney, stability of colloids, protection
and sensitization phenomenon and applications of colloid in pharmacy.

– Emulsions: Types, theories of emulsification, Emulsifying agents, their

classification and stability of emulsion.

– Suspensions: Types, methods of preparation, properties, suspending

agents, their classification and stability.
 DISPERSED SYSTEM
• A system in which one phase, the dispersed phase, is
distributed uniformly as particles throughout another phase,
called the dispersion medium or continuous phase.
• Based on the size of the dispersed phase, 3 types of dispersed
system are generally considered:
– Molecular dispersions
– Colloidal dispersions
– Coarse dispersions
CLASSIFICATION OF DISPERSED SYSTEM ON THE BASIS OF
PARTICLE SIZE
 Dispersed System
• Colloids
– A colloid is a solution that has particles ranging from
1nm and 0.5um in diameter, yet are still able to
remain evenly distributed throughout the solution.
These are also known as colloidal dispersions because
the substances remain dispersed and do not settle to
the bottom.
Colloids
• The shape adopted by colloidal particles in
dispersion is important because the more
extended the particle, the greater is its
specific surface and the greater is the
opportunity for attractive forces to develop
between the particles of the dispersed
phase and the dispersion medium.
• A colloidal particle is something like a
hedgehog—in a friendly environment, it
unrolls and exposes maximum surface
area.
• Under adverse conditions, it rolls up and
reduces its exposed area.
• properties such as as flow, sedimentation,
and osmotic pressure are affected by
changes in the shape of colloidal particles.
• Particle shape may also influence
pharmacological action
 Types of Colloidal System
• Lyophilic colloids;
– Easy to formulate, Solvent loving, Hydrophilic (gelatin,
acacia, etc…) or Lipophilic (rubbers, polystyrene, etc…)
colloids.
• Lyophobic colloids;
– Difficult to formulate, Solvent hating, Hydrophobic or
Lipophobic colloids.
• Association colloids;
– Surfactants/Amphiphilic colloids, amphiphiles, both polar
and non polar groups.
 LYOPHILIC COLLOIDS
• Solvent loving colloids
• Dispersed particle and dispersion medium interact to a great extent
• hydrophilic colloids - When dispersion medium in these types of colloids is water
– Examples: gelatin, acacia and albumin
• Lipophilic colloids- when dispersion medium is non-aqueous , organic solvents
such as benzene
– Examples: rubber and polystyrene form lyophilic colloids in benzene
• Thermodynamically stable
• Easy to prepare
• Viscosity of dispersion medium generally increases greatly on addition of
dispersed phase with the sol turning to gel at sufficiently high concentrations.
 LYOPHOBIC COLLOIDS
• Solvent hating colloids
• Very little attraction between dispersed particles and dispersion medium
• Hydrophobic colloids- when dispersion medium is water
– Examples: colloidal dispersion of gold, silver and sulphur in water
• Difficult to prepare
• Thermodynamically unstable
• The dispersed phase can be easily salted out even in presence of very small
conc. of electrolytes
• Viscosity of dispersion medium does not increase greatly by the presence of
lyophobic colloidal particles which tend to remain unsolvated
 ASSOCIATION COLLOIDS

• Micelles and CMC

• Amphiphilic colloids, amphiphiles, both polar and non polar groups.
• When present in a liquid medium at low concentrations, the amphiphiles exist
separately and are of such a size as to be subcolloidal. As the concentration is
increased, aggregation occurs over a narrow concentration range. These aggregates,
which may contain 50 or more monomers, are called micelles.
• micelles lie within the size range we have designated as colloidal. The concentration of
monomer at which micelles form is termed the critical micelle concentration(CMC).
The number of monomers that aggregate to form a micelle is known as the
aggregation number of the micelle.
• The phenomenon of micelle formation …
• The phenomenon of micelle formation can be explained as follows.
• Below the CMC, the concentration of amphiphile undergoing
adsorption at the air–water interface increases as the total
concentration of amphiphile is raised.
• Eventually, a point is reached at which both the interface and the
bulk phase become saturated with monomers. This is the CMC.
• Any further amphiphile added in excess of this concentration
aggregates to form micelles in the bulk phase, and, in this manner,
the free energy of the system is reduced.
 PREPARATION OF COLLOIDS

• Lyophilic colloids;
– Relatively easy to prepare as they have great affinity towards the
dispersion medium.
– Disperse phase allowed to soak in an appropriate medium for some
time, and due to the affinity character it will interact considerably,
forming a colloidal dispersion
 PREPARATION OF LYOPHOBIC COLLOIDS

• Lyophobic colloids;
– Difficult to produce a lyophobic colloid and generally two
methods are used;
• 1. Dispersion methods: By splitting coarse aggregates of a
substance into a colloidal size.
• 2. Condensation methods: By aggregating very small particles into
the colloidal particles.
1. DISPERSION METHOD

• In this method, coarse particles are broken down into smaller

particles of colloidal dimension through suitable means
including the following:
– Mechanical dispersion- Colloid Mill
– Electrical Dispersion
– Peptization
– Ultrasonic Radiation
 PREPARATION OF COLLOIDS -DISPERSION
METHOD
• Mechanical dispersion
– Substance is first ground to coarse particles
– Then mixed with dispersion medium to get a suspension
– Suspension is then grinded in colloidal mill
– It consists of two metallic discs nearly touching each other
and rotating in opposite directions at a very high speed
about 7000 revolutions per minute.
– The space between the space of the disc is so adjusted that
coarse suspension is subjected to great shearing force giving
rise to particles of colloidal size
– Colloidal solutions of black ink, paints, varnishes, dyes etc
are obtained by this method
 ELECTRICAL DISPERSION OR BREDIG’S ARC METHOD
• This method is used to prepare sols of
platinum, silver, copper or gold.
• The metal whose sol is to be prepared
is made as two electrodes which
immerge in dispersion medium such as
water and connected to a high voltage
source.
 ELECTRICAL DISPERSION OR BREDIG’S ARC METHOD
• The dispersion medium is kept cooled by ice.
• An electric arc is struck between the electrodes.
• This creates large heat due to which metal rods melt,
evaporate and suddenly cooled due to freezing mixture
that give rise to colloidal solution of the metal.
• The colloidal solution prepared is stabilized by adding a
small amount of KOH to it
 PEPTIZATION
• Process of converting precipitates of large particle size to colloidal size by
shaking it with dispersion medium in the presence of small amount of
electrolyte known as the peptizing agent
• Certain dispersions of hydrophobic material requires a certain charge for
stability
• During peptisation, the precipitate adsorbs one of the ions of the electrolyte on
its surface.
• The adsorbed ion is generally common with those of the precipitate.
• This causes the development of positive or negative charge on precipitates
which ultimately break up into smaller particles having the dimensions of
colloids.
 PEPTIZATION
• Ferric hydroxide yields a sol by adding ferric chloride
 ULTRASONIC RADIATION
• The sound waves of high frequency are usually called ultra-
sonic waves
• The passage of ultrasonic waves through a dispersion medium
produces high frequency oscillations (20,000 to 200,000 cycles
per second) resulting in size reduction of coarse particles to
colloidal size
• Various substances like oil, mercury, sulphur, sulphides and
oxides of metals can be dispersed in a colloidal state by this
method.
PREPARATION OF COLLOIDS- CONDENSATION

• In these method, smaller particles of dispersed phase are condensed

suitably to be of colloidal size. This is usually achieved by :
• Exchange of solvents
• Change of physical state
• Chemical methods
– Double decomposition
– Oxidation
– Reduction
– Hydrolysis
PREPARATION OF COLLOIDS- CONDENSATION

• Exchange of solvents
• There are a no. of substances whose colloidal solutions can be
prepared by taking the solution of the substance in one solvent
and pouring it into another solvent in which the substance is
relatively less soluble.

• E.g. If a solution of sulphur or phosphorus in alcohol is poured

into water, a colloidal solution of sulphur or phosphorus is
obtained due to low solubility in water.
PREPARATION OF COLLOIDS- CONDENSATION

• By change of Physical state

• A colloidal solution of certain elements such as mercury and
sulphur are obtained by passing their vapours through cold
water containing a stabilizer (an ammonium salt or a citrate).
PREPARATION OF COLLOIDS- CONDENSATION

• CHEMICAL METHODS
– Oxidation method
– Reduction method
– Hydrolysis method
– Double decomposition method
 PURIFICATION OF COLLOIDS
• Many methods of preparation of colloids may give product which is
a mixture of colloidally dispersed particles and particles in true
solution.
• Purification means removal of such materials from true solution
since coarse particles, if present can be easily removed by filtration.
• There are 3 common methods for purification of colloids
– Dialysis
– Electrodialysis
– Ultrafiltration
PURIFICATION OF COLLOIDS

Dialysis Electro-dialysis Ultra-filtration

 ELECTRODIALYSIS
• The process of dialysis is very slow
• The process is speeded up by application of electrical potential
• This is called electro dialysis.
ELECTRODIALYSIS
 ULTRAFILTRATION
• Ultrafiltration is a process of high pressure
filtration through a semi permeable
membrane in which colloidal particles are
retained while the small sized solutes and
the solvent are forced to move across the
membrane by hydrostatic pressure forces.
 Properties of Colloids
• Particle Size
• Kinetic properties
– Brownian motion
– Diffusion
– Osmotic pressure
– Sedimentation
– Viscosity
 Properties of Colloids
• Optical Properties
– Tyndall effect
– Ultra-microscopy
– Electron-microscopy
– Light Scattering
 Properties of Colloids
• Electrical Properties
– Electrical Double Layer
– Electrophoresis
– Electro-osmosis
– Streaming Potential
– Sedimentation Potential
– Donnan Membrane Effect
 Properties of Colloids ( Particle size)
• the Particle size of colloid can be determined by the use of:
– Ultra microscopy
– Graded filters during ultra filtration
– Rate of sedimentation in centrifuge
 Properties of Colloids (Optical Properties)
– ULTRA-MICROSCOPY;
– The colloidal particles are too small to be seen
with an optical microscope
– However, when a cell containing a colloidal
dispersion is viewed through an ultra
microscope against a dark background at right
angles to an intense beam of incident light, the
particles appear as bright spots against the
dark background.
– This method is helpful in counting particles.
 Electron-microscopy
•Ultra microscopes are sometimes not able to resolve some
lyophilic colloids
•Hence electron microscopes are used for studying the colloidal
dispersions.
•It is useful in getting a picture of actual particles, even those
approaching molecular dimensions, and widely used to observe the
size, shape and structure of colloidal particle
•Can determine the particles separated with a distance as lowest as
0.5nm
 Light scattering
• When a beam of light is passed through a colloidal dispersion, some of it is absorbed, some is
scattered and the remainder is transmitted undisturbed through the sample.
• The absorbed light is responsible for the highly colored nature of certain colloids.
• The scattered light caused the colloidal dispersion to appear turbid.
• Fractional decrease in the intensity of light due to scattering as the incident light passes through 1cm of solution is called turbidity τ.
 It is turbidity that can be observed due to scattering of light.
 Turbidity can be calculated by the intensity of the scattered light

I = IO exp- τl
Where
– I is intensity of incident beam
– IO is intensity of transmitted light
– τ is turbidity
– L is length of the sample
 Light Scattering

– Light scattering measurements has been used for determining the

molecular weight of the colloidal particle using the following equation:

– At a given concentration of dispersed phase, turbidity is proportional to

the molecular weight of Lyophilic colloids.
• The molecular weight of colloid can be determined by following
equation.

• Where,
– τ= turbidity measured at 90o to the incident beam
– C= conc: of solute (g/L)
– M=mol:wt
– B=interaction constant (for any particular solvent/solute system and depends on degree of interaction
between the solvent and solute molecules)
– H=Optical constant
 Kinetic Properties
BROWNIAN MOTION
• Colloidal particles in a sol are continuously bombarded by the molecules of the dispersion
medium on all sides.
• As a result, the sol particles show random or zig-zag movements. This random or zig-
zag motion of the colloidal particles in a sol is called Brownian motion or Brownian movement
• There is a continuous bombardment of the moving molecules of
the dispersion medium on the colloidal particles from all directions.
• This imparts a momentum to the particles to move in a forward
direction where again it collides with another particle. These
collisions result in the random zigzag movement of the colloidal
particle.
• The Brownian movement imparts stability to the sol. It opposes the
gravitational force acting on colloidal particles and prevents them
from settling down thus maintaining the stability of the sol.
• The Brownian motion:
– Increases with decrease in particle size
– Decreases with increase in viscosity of dispersion medium
 Diffusion

– Diffusion is the result of Brownian motion of the particles.

– The rate of diffusion is expressed by Fick’s Law of diffusion.

dq/dt = -DS dc/dx

• dq/dt; amount of substance diffusing per unit time,

• D; diffusion coefficient,
• S; surface area,
• dc/dx; concentration gradient
 Osmotic pressure
• A colligative property, depends upon no. of particles present in
dispersion.
• Used to calculate molecular weight of the colloidal material.

P= C/M RT
Where;
– P is the osmotic pressure
– C is the conc. In grams of solute per litre of solvent
– M is the molecular weight
– R is the gas constant
– T is the temperature in Kelvin
 Sedimentation
• The velocity of sedimentation is given by Stokes’s law;

V= d²(ρ-ρο)g /18ηo
Where;
V= velocity, of sedimentation
ρ= density of particles
ρ ο= density of medium
η o= viscosity
d= diameter of the particle
g is acceleration due to gravity
 Viscosity
• It is the resistance to flow of system under an applied stress.
• The more viscous a liquid, the greater the applied force
required to make it flow at a particular rate
• The viscosity of a colloidal system is affected by:
– Shape of colloidal material
• Spherocolloids---- dispersion of low viscosity
• Linear particles--- more viscous dispersions
– Degree of solvation
 Electrical Properties
• Electrical Double Layer
• The particles in a colloid are
almost
always electrically charged.
• This charge on the particle is
balanced by an opposite charge in
the surrounding fluid.
• There is a region around each
particle where the particle charge
attracts the free ions to form
an electrical cloud called
 ELECTRICAL DOUBLE LAYER
• Electric Double Layer is the phenomenon playing a
fundamental role in the mechanism of the electrostatic
stabilization of colloids.
• Colloidal particles gain negative electric charge when
negatively charged ions of the dispersion medium are
adsorbed on the particles surface.
• A negatively charged particle attracts the positive
counterions surrounding the particle.
 ELECTRICAL DOUBLE LAYER
• Electric Double Layer is the layer surrounding a particle
of the dispersed phase and including the ions adsorbed
on the particle surface and a film of the countercharged
dispersion medium.
• An electric double layer consists of three parts;
– Surface charge
– Stern layer
– Diffuse layer (Gouy- Chapman layer)
• The electrical potential within the Electric Double Layer has
the maximum value on the particle surface (Stern layer).
• The potential drops with the increase of distance from the
surface and decreases at the boundary of the Electric
Double Layer.
• When a colloidal particle moves in the dispersion medium, a
layer of the surrounding liquid remains attached to the
particle.
• The boundary of this layer is called slipping plane (shear
plane).
• The value of the electric potential at the slipping plane is
called Zeta potential, which is very important parameter in
the theory of interaction of colloidal particles.
 ELECTROPHORESIS
• Colloidal particles of a sol either carry
positive or negative charge.
• The existence of charge on colloidal
particles can be demonstrated by a
phenomenon called electrophoresis
where the colloidal particles when
placed in an electric field, move towards
either cathode or anode depending upon
the charge on them.
 Electrophoresis
• From the direction of movement of colloidal particles, it is possible to find out the
charge on colloidal particles.
• If the colloidal particles move towards the positive electrode, they carry negative
charge.
• On the other hand if the sol particles migrate towards negative electrode, they are
positively charged.
• The rate of the migration of the particles is observed by means of ultra microscope,
and is a function of charge on the particle.
• The rate-determining potential is the zeta potential.
 Zeta potential is the potential difference between the dispersed medium
and the liquid adsorbed on the surface of the stationary or colloid
particles, denoted by symbol ζ.

• Where;
• ς = zeta potential in volts
• V = velocity of movement of colloidal particles in cm/sec
• η = viscosity of medium in poises
• Ɛ = dielectric constant of the medium
• E= externally applied electric potential in volts/cm
• The term v/E is termed as the mobility
• Electrophoresis permits the:
– identification of different colloidal components in a mixture
– to study the electrophoretic mobility of the components in a mixture
such as that of proteins
– to estimate the relative amounts present
 ELECTRO-OSMOSIS
• When the movement of colloidal particles under the influence
of the applied electric field is checked with the help of a suitable
membrane (semi permeable membrane), the dispersion
medium moves in a direction opposite to the direction in which
the colloidal particles would have otherwise moved.
• This phenomenon is called electro-osmosis and may be defined
as the movement of dispersion medium under the influence of
an electric field in the situation when the movement of colloidal
particles is prevented with the help of a suitable membrane
 ELECTRO-OSMOSIS
• A colloidal solution as a whole is electrically neutral in nature
i.e., dispersion medium carries an equal and opposite charge to
that of the particles of dispersed phase.
• When the movement of dispersed phase of colloidal solution is
prevented by suitable means, the dispersion medium can be
made to move under the influence of an applied electric field
or potential. This phenomenon is referred to as Electro-
Osmosis.
Demonstration of Electro-Osmosis
 Sedimentation Potential
• The reverse of electrophoresis, is the creation of a potential when particle undergoes
sedimentation.
SEDIMENTATION POTENTIAL
 Streaming Potential
• Streaming potential is opposite to electro-osmosis.
• If the electrodes in the electro-osmosis apparatus are replaced by a
galvanometer in the circuit, no current will be detected when the liquid is
stationary.
• However, if the liquid is forced through the tube, the galvanometer will indicate
a current.
• This streaming potential is due to the displacement of the charges equilibrated
in the double layer around the solid.
• which means the liquid carries away the ions with the charge opposite to the
surface, giving rise to a streaming current, consequently, leading to the
accumulations of charge at the ends and an electrical field
 Donnan Membrane Equilibrium
• The Gibbs–Donnan effect (also known as
the Donnan's effect, Donnan law, Donnan equilibrium, or Gibbs–
Donnan equilibrium) is a name for the behavior of charged
particles near a semi-permeable membrane that sometimes fail
to distribute evenly across the two sides of the membrane.
• It refers to the uneven distribution of charged particles on one
side of a semi-permeable membrane. These particles are not able
to evenly distribute themselves by diffusion across both sides of
the membrane.
 Donnan Membrane Equilibrium
• When two solutions containing diffusible and non-diffusible ions
are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, the non-diffusible
ions enhance the diffusion of oppositely charged diffusible ions.
• The diffusion takes place towards non-diffusible ion containing side
• This also reduces the diffusion of liked charged ions to that side.
• As a result, on the side which contains non-diffusible ions,
diffusible counter-ions are more concentrated while the like
charged diffusible ions concentrate more on the opposite side.
• This is called Donnan effect.
 INTERACTION OF COLLOIDS
• The following effects are observed on mixing different colloids:
1. MUTUAL PRECIPITATION
• When two oppositely charged hydrophobic colloids are
mixed, precipitation takes place.
• Charges necessary for stability get neutralized by each other
and attractive forces between particles dominate.
 INTERACTION OF COLLOIDS
2. CO-ACERVATE FORMATION
• When oppositely charged hydrophilic colloids are mixed, the
particles may separated from the dispersion medium to produce
a layer rich in the colloidal aggregates.
• This colloidal rich layer is called as co-acervate and the
phenomenon is termed as co-acervation.
• Such a co-acervation is encountered when solution of gelatin
carrying positively charged gelatin particles are mixed with
negatively charged acacia particles
 INTERACTION OF COLLOIDS

3. SENSITIZATION
– In the presence of very small amount of hydrophilic colloids, the
hydrophobic colloids may become even more susceptible to
precipitation from electrolytes.
– Sensitization is attributed to a reduction in zeta potential below the
critical value (the value at which coagulation occurs).
– It is also reasoned that it is due to the reduction in the thickness of the
ionic layer surrounding the colloidal particles.
 INTERACTION OF COLLOIDS
4. PROTECTIVE COLLOID
– The addition of larger amounts of hydrophilic colloids increases
the stability of hydrophobic colloids towards precipitation by
electrolytes.
– The hydrophilic colloids adsorb on the surface of an
hydrophobic colloid particles and form a protective layer thus
preventing them from precipitation on addition of an electrolyte.
– This phenomenon is called protection and the added hydrophilic
sol is known as protective colloid.
– The common example of protective colloids are : gelatin,
casein, hemoglobin, egg albumin etc
 STABILITY OF COLLOIDS
Stability depends upon two factors
1. Presence of charge on dispersed colloidal particles
2. Presence of a solvent sheath surrounding each dispersed particle
 STABILITY OF COLLOIDS
• When the colloidal particles collide as a result of Brownian
movement, the above two factors will prevent mutual
adherence.
• It may be said that the stability of lyophobic colloid is largely
due to the electric charges on the surface of the dispersed
particles and
• For lyophilic sols, it is the solvent sheath that is significant in
stabilizing the system
 STABILITY OF COLLOIDS
• In a lyophobic sol, the particles are stabilized by the presence
of electric charges on their surfaces.
• The like charges present on the surface prevent the
coagulation of the particles.
• Coagulation is the process where the colloidal particles
aggregate together resulting in the precipitation of the
dispersed particles and ultimately the colloid dispersion breaks
up.
 STABILITY OF COLLOIDS
• SCHULZE-HARDY RULE
• Coagulation of colloidal dispersions can be brought about by the
addition of electrolytes which reduces the zeta potential.
• The effectiveness of an electrolyte to cause precipitation depends
not only on the concentration but also on the valence of the active
ion.
• “The higher the valency of ion, the greater is the precipitating
power”
• This is known as Schulze- Hardy Rule
“The higher the valency of ion, the greater is the precipitating power”

• Fewer 3+ ions than 2+ than 1+ ions are needed to cancel out

colloid charge on negatively charged colloid
 STABILITY OF COLLOIDS
• GOLD NUMBER is a measure of the protective ability of
hydrophilic colloid.
• It is defined as the minimum amount of protective colloid in
milligrams which prevents a color change from red to violet of
10ml gold sol by the addition of 1 ml of 10%NaCl solution.
• The Lower the gold number, higher is the protective ability of
the colloid.
 STABILITY OF COLLOIDS
DLVO THEORY
• Developed by Derjaguin and Landau
• Verwey and Overbeek describes the stability of
Lyophobic colloids.
• According to this theory, two types of forces act on
the colloidal particles in a dispersion:
1. The electrostatic repulsive forces
– Due to electrical double layer
2. The attractive London Van der Walls forces
VT=VA+VR
 STABILITY OF COLLOIDS
• Va decreases as the interparticulate distance increases
• Vr decreases exponentially with distance
• At low electrolyte conc., the repulsive forces predominate so that the
particles experience only a repulsive forces upon approach.
• The particles remain individually and the system is called dispersed or
peptized
• At a high conc. of electrolyte, the electrical double layer forces are greatly
diminished.
• As a result, Van der Walls forces of attraction predominate and the
particles encounter net attractive forces ending in coagulation.
 STABILITY OF COLLOIDS
HOFMEISTER OR LYOTROPIC SERIES
• It is a classification of ions in order of their ability to salt
out or salt in proteins
• Lyophilic or association colloids are thermodynamically stable.
• Addition of small amount of electrolyte does not affect but
addition of sufficient amount leads to coagulation. SALTING
OUT.
• This series gives coagulation power of lyophilic colloids
• Anions of Hofmeister series in decreasing power of
precipitating power are:
– citrate, tartarate, sulphate, acetate, chloride, nitrate, bromide and
iodide
 PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATION
• Large surface area-greater adsorption e.g. kaolin
• Particle size reduction- alter some therapeutic properties of the
drug e.g.
– Colloidal iron is less astringent than its ionic salt
– Colloidal iodine is less toxic
– Colloidal silver is a more effective germicidal
– Colloidal mercury is effective for treatment of syphilis
 PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATION
• Hydrophilic colloids are used as suspending agents and as a
protective for hydrophobic colloids
• Dextran injection is a colloidal dispersion and is used as plasma
substitute
• As diagnostic agents- e.g. , Lange’s Gold sol solution is used to
detect syphilis in patients.
– Normal spinal fluid protects the gold sol from the precipitation effect
of sodium chloride whereas in a syphilitic case, it fails to prevent it.
 Reference
• PHYSICAL PHARMACY
By: Dr. S.P Agarwal
– Ch # 5
– Colloidal dispersions