Design of Experiments by R. C. Baker: How To Gain 20 Years of Experience in One Short Week!

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DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

by
R. C. Baker

How to gain 20 years of experience


in one short week!

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Role of DOE in Process Improvement
• DOE is a formal mathematical method for
systematically planning and conducting
scientific studies that change experimental
variables together in order to determine their
effect of a given response.

• DOE makes controlled changes to input


variables in order to gain maximum amounts of
information on cause and effect relationships
with a minimum sample size.
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Role of DOE in Process Improvement

• DOE is more efficient that a standard


approach of changing “one variable at a
time” in order to observe the variable’s
impact on a given response.

• DOE generates information on the effect


various factors have on a response variable
and in some cases may be able to determine
optimal settings for those factors.
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Role of DOE in Process Improvement

• DOE encourages “brainstorming” activities


associated with discussing key factors that may
affect a given response and allows the
experimenter to identify the “key” factors for
future studies.

• DOE is readily supported by numerous


statistical software packages available on the
market.
4
BASIC STEPS IN DOE

• Four elements associated with DOE:


• 1. The design of the experiment,
• 2. The collection of the data,
• 3. The statistical analysis of the data, and
• 4. The conclusions reached and
recommendations made as a result of the
experiment.
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TERMINOLOGY
• Replication – repetition of a basic
experiment without changing any factor
settings, allows the experimenter to
estimate the experimental error (noise) in
the system used to determine whether
observed differences in the data are “real”
or “just noise”, allows the experimenter to
obtain more statistical power (ability to
identify small effects)
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TERMINOLOGY

• .Randomization – a statistical tool used to


minimize potential uncontrollable biases in the
experiment by randomly assigning material,
people, order that experimental trials are
conducted, or any other factor not under the control
of the experimenter. Results in “averaging out” the
effects of the extraneous factors that may be
present in order to minimize the risk of these
factors affecting the experimental results.

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TERMINOLOGY
• Blocking – technique used to increase the
precision of an experiment by breaking the
experiment into homogeneous segments
(blocks) in order to control any potential
block to block variability (multiple lots of
raw material, several shifts, several
machines, several inspectors). Any effects
on the experimental results as a result of the
blocking factor will be identified and
minimized.
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TERMINOLOGY
• Confounding - A concept that basically means
that multiple effects are tied together into one
parent effect and cannot be separated. For
example,
• 1. Two people flipping two different coins would
result in the effect of the person and the effect of
the coin to be confounded
• 2. As experiments get large, higher order
interactions (discussed later) are confounded with
lower order interactions or main effect.

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TERMINOLOGY
• Factors – experimental factors or
independent variables (continuous or
discrete) an investigator manipulates to
capture any changes in the output of the
process. Other factors of concern are those
that are uncontrollable and those which are
controllable but held constant during the
experimental runs.

10
TERMINOLOGY

• Responses – dependent variable measured


to describe the output of the process.

• Treatment Combinations (run) –


experimental trial where all factors are set
at a specified level.

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TERMINOLOGY
• Fixed Effects Model - If the treatment
levels are specifically chosen by the
experimenter, then conclusions reached
will only apply to those levels.
• Random Effects Model – If the treatment
levels are randomly chosen from a
population of many possible treatment
levels, then conclusions reached can be
extended to all treatment levels in the
population.
12
PLANNING A DOE

• Everyone involved in the experiment should


have a clear idea in advance of exactly what
is to be studied, the objectives of the
experiment, the questions one hopes to
answer and the results anticipated

13
PLANNING A DOE

• Select a response/dependent variable


(variables) that will provide information
about the problem under study and the
proposed measurement method for this
response variable, including an
understanding of the measurement system
variability

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PLANNING A DOE

• Select the independent variables/factors


(quantitative or qualitative) to be
investigated in the experiment, the number
of levels for each factor, and the levels of
each factor chosen either specifically (fixed
effects model) or randomly (random effects
model).

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PLANNING A DOE
• Choose an appropriate experimental design
(relatively simple design and analysis methods are
almost always best) that will allow your
experimental questions to be answered once the data
is collected and analyzed, keeping in mind tradeoffs
between statistical power and economic efficiency.
At this point in time it is generally useful to simulate
the study by generating and analyzing artificial data
to insure that experimental questions can be
answered as a result of conducting your experiment

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PLANNING A DOE

• Perform the experiment (collect data)


paying particular attention such things as
randomization and measurement system
accuracy, while maintaining as uniform an
experimental environment as possible.
How the data are to be collected is a critical
stage in DOE

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PLANNING A DOE

• Analyze the data using the appropriate


statistical model insuring that attention is
paid to checking the model accuracy by
validating underlying assumptions
associated with the model. Be liberal in the
utilization of all tools, including graphical
techniques, available in the statistical
software package to insure that a maximum
amount of information is generated
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PLANNING A DOE

• Based on the results of the analysis, draw


conclusions/inferences about the results,
interpret the physical meaning of these
results, determine the practical significance
of the findings, and make recommendations
for a course of action including further
experiments

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FACTORIAL (2k) DESIGNS (k = 2):
GRAPHICAL OUTPUT
• Neither factor A nor Factor B have an effect
on the response variable.

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FACTORIAL (2k) DESIGNS (k = 2):
GRAPHICAL OUTPUT
• Factor A has an effect on the response
variable, but Factor B does not.

21
FACTORIAL (2k) DESIGNS (k = 2):
GRAPHICAL OUTPUT
• Factor A and Factor B have an effect on the
response variable.

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FACTORIAL (2k) DESIGNS (k = 2):
GRAPHICAL OUTPUT
• Factor B has an effect on the response variable, but only if
factor A is set at the “High” level. This is called
interaction and it basically means that the effect one factor
has on a response is dependent on the level you set other
factors at. Interactions can be major problems in a DOE if
you fail to account for the interaction when designing your
experiment.

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2k DESIGNS (k > 2)
• As the number of factors increase, the
number of runs needed to complete a
complete factorial experiment will increase
dramatically. The following 2k design
layout depict the number of runs needed for
values of k from 2 to 5. For example, when
k = 5, it will take 25 = 32 experimental runs
for the complete factorial experiment.

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2k DESIGNS (k > 2)

• Once the effect for all factors and


interactions are determined, you are able to
develop a prediction model to estimate the
response for specific values of the factors.
In general, we will do this with statistical
software, but for these designs, you can do
it by hand calculations if you wish.

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2k DESIGNS (k > 2)

• For example, if there are no significant interactions


present, you can estimate a response by the
following formula. (for quantitative factors only)

factorEFFE CT
Y = (average of all responses) +  [(
2
) * ( factorLEVE L)]

A 
=Y ( )* A ( B )*B
2 2

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