Unit Five-Politics, Economy & Social Processes from

Early 16th to Late 18th Centuries: Conflict Between

Christian Kingdom & Adal Sultanate and Aftermath
•Control over long-distance trade routes going through Zeila caused
centuries long competition between Christian Kingdom & Muslim
Sultanates, religious supremacy providing ideological justification;
Adal Sultanate got upper hand in wars from 1529 to 1543;
As prelude to conflict, Muslim Sultanates’ internal strife, corruption
and anarchy were intensified and new leadership was urgently called for;
Such leadership came from Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi alias
“left-handed,” whose origins are obscure.
 Cont'd...
Imam Ahmed was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa & Jigjiga and
raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of oases on Zeila route;
As pious Muslim, he soldiered for Adal Garad Abun, who during his
few years in power called for Islamic Puritanism;
Imam withdrew to countryside, upon his inspiration source, Abun’s
death and started calling for dedication to Islam teachings;
 Here came fundamental change in confrontations cause;
After Imam Ahmad’s rise to power, battles were not just for trade route
control but mainly for environmental pressure among Afar & Somali
pastoralists pushing to approach Harar and Christian Kingdom.
 Cont'd...
For centuries, lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists had wanted to
expand to high plateaus for better & enough pasturelands and attempted
to do so, but only to be held back by Christian army;
With increased population & overgrazing in Eastern Ethiopian Afar &
Somali between 13th & 16th centuries, raiding & counter-raiding at water
holes or animal rustling intensified;
Imam’s amazing leadership achievements mobilized Afar, Argobba,
Harari, Harla, Somali & other pastoral communities to common cause;
 He convinced them not to fight each other but unite & expand to
Christian Kingdom and resolve their critical material needs while
keeping Islamic believes & practices from any alien doctrine infiltration;
 Cont'd...
Yet, Lebne-Dengel was enthroned at 11 and assisted by elderly Elleni;
Since most Muslim states became Christian Kingdom’s tributary for
internal rivalry in early 16thcentury, Christian army under Lebne Dingle
could not give attention for their strength after Ahmed’s coming to
power;
However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army;
Imam Ahmed was strong enough for confrontation in 1520 and refused
to pay tribute following by campaign against Christian Kingdom in
1527;
Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar,
Hadiya, Kambata, Sidama, etc and Christian Kingdom was at risk;
 Cont'd...
However, his large army was with logistics and leadership problems
failing to adopt common strategy;
Conversely, Imam’s small-sized army managed logistics problems;
Enthusiastic Imam’s army had also excellent leadership characterized
by better mobility and flexible tactics with unified command;
Consequently, larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in
most decisive engagement/battle at Shimbra Kure, near Mojo in 1529;
Then, Christian territories like Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and in north up
to Mereb Melash became under Imam’s control;
Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast
including Ethiopian interior by 1535.
 Cont'd...
 As he penetrated deep into Christian Kingdom, Ahmed set up civil
bureaucracy constituted from his men and newly recruited personnel
from Christian territories;
 His wife, Bati Del Wanbara/Adal military commander Mahfuz’s
daughter had encouraged her husband to avenge her father’s death;
 She accompanied Ahmed throughout his expeditions and is said to
have marched even being pregnant and unable to use mules;
 Indeed, she delivered her two sons during Ifat & Tigray campaigns in
1531 & 1533 respectively.
 Cont'd...
 On the other hand, military set back forced Lebne Dengel to retreat
and finally died in 1540 being fugitive;
 His son, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559) continued wars with intensity as
Ahmed received 200 Turkish musketeers & 10 cannons in 1540;
 Meanwhile, based on request by Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about 400
Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks and led by Christopher,
Vasco da Gama’s youngest son arrived at Christian court in 1541;
 Yet, about 200 Portuguese were killed and their leader Christopher da
Gama was beheaded in Ofla battle, southern Tigray in August 1542, in
which Lebne-Dengel's wife and Gelawdewos’ Queen mother
Seblewongel participated.
 Cont'd...
Then, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s ability to repulse
any future attack by Christian force that he sent his allies back home and
let his army camp;
Due to limited resources, Gelawdewos employed hit and run strategy,
which severely affected Imam’s army;
Ahmed’s army could not use its previous easy mobility because they
did not know where attacks came from;
While Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and
killed after fierce fighting at Woyna-Dega on February 25, 1543;
So, Christians restored almost all northern and central plateau;
Muslims in highlands submitted to Gelawdewos, who was tolerant to
 Cont'd...
Gelawdewos established strong Christian Kingdom regaining many
pre-1520s territories and tributary regions, camping Chewa (regiment) in
border areas by early 1550s;
Yet, growing challenge to Christians came from retreating Adal
soldiers, Ottoman Turks, Jesuits and Oromo that advanced into center;
Adal forces, under Emir Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahiddin, confronted for
revenge and killed Gelawdewos in1559;
Minas (r. 1559-1563) defeated Turks and reclaimed coastal territories
like Dabarwa, but Yishaq allied with Turks;
Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend Turks and fight with Agaw,
Bete-Israel, Enarya, Gumuz, Oromo & Sidama.
 Muslim-Christian Conflict Consequences
Huge human & material cost weakened Muslims & Christians;
Linguistic & religious intermingling & intermarriages among various cultural groups;

Though Ethiopia was not maritime power, Portugal & Turks rivalry
over Red Sea & Indian Ocean gave the conflict global dimension;
Christian rulers might have sought alliance with Roman Catholicism as
tactic to get weaponry & training;
Some Jesuit missionaries with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to
Ethiopia in1557 to expand Catholicism promoting 2 different & separate,
Christ-divine & human natures, contrary to Monophysite Ethiopian
Orthodox Church/EOC theology that taught that Christ, through union/
Tewahedo had perfect human nature inseparable from divinity.
 Cont'd...
 Leading missioners, who played key role to evangelize Ethiopia
included Joao Bermudez, Oviedo, Pedro Paez & Alfonso Mendez;
Gelawdewos defended EOC in Faith Confession;
 Since Minas and Sertse-Dengel were too busy fighting against
Oromo & Turkish forces, they couldn't get time to entertain Jesuits in
courts;
 Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) was said to have been sympathetic to
Catholicism, but overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7);
 Susenyos (r. 1607-32) as was challenged by provincial leaders, who
refused to pay tribute, integrated Oromo with central government
forces to consolidate his power.
 Cont'd...
Susenyos got alliance through Pedro Paez’s diplomatic advisory;
Susenyos was converted to Catholicism in 1612 and announced it to be
state religion in 1622.
Anti Catholic voices mounted following 1617-8 liturgical changes:
 Orthodox priests & deacons reconsecration and mass rebaptism;
Jewish customs/male circumcision & Sabbath observance suspension;
 Ge’ez preaching; Wednesdays & Fridays fasting; Ethiopian saints &
Ark Covenant (Tabot) reverence were prohibited while eating pork, Latin
Mass & Gregorian calendar were ordered to be adopted;
Consequently, even emperor’s loyal followers including his son
Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) opposed and civil war followed.
 Cont'd...
Controversies, rebellions & repressions mounted and state came to
falling apart verge after 1625;
Many peasants lost their lives in one day in June 1632;
Finally, Emperor Susenyos abdicated throne in favor of Fasiledas;
 Fasiledas restored Orthodox position as state religion, expelled Jesuits
and punished local converts including Susenyos’ brother and the most
fervent Catholic supporter, Se'ela Kristos;
Fearing another conflict, Fasiledas introduced "Close-Door Policy,"
which isolated Ethiopia from all Europeans for about century & half
until 19th century beginning except secret visits by French Doctor
Charles Jacques Poncet in 1700 and Scottish traveler James Bruce in
 Cont'd...
Conversely, he adopted close diplomatic relations with Islamic world and allied with
neighboring Muslim states to ensure that no European crossed into Christian domain;
He concluded agreement in 1647, with Ottoman Pasha at Suakin & Massawa to effect
that the latter should block any European from entering in to his territory;
 Jesuits legacy later divided EOC in into disputant sects during princess era;
 Tewahedo teaches Christ’s Hulet Lidet/two births: first in eternity as Divine Being
eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into world as perfect man and
divinity united in one nature, dominant in Tigray & Lasta.
 Qibat/Unction accepted eternal birth, but claimed that at incarnation, when he was
born into world, Holy Ghost anointed him, dominant in Gojjam;

Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ was first
born in eternity as Divine Being, was born again in St. Mary womb and anointed by
 Argoba, Afar & Somali Population Movements
•Christian-Muslim conflict in late 15th & early 16th centuries caused Argoba, Afar &
Somali movement as their territories lay in region where trade routes passed and they
moved back & forth in response to war;
 Yet pressure on environment laid ground for population movement;
 Argoba are said to have descended from Prophet Mohammed followers settled Ifat;
 Afar Makabanto Democratic Institution; Maduna & Abasa cities;
 Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Awsa 1577;
 Imam Umar Din bin Adam's ascension to throne after 1672;
 Awsa was reestablished by Kedafo c.1734 and ruled by his Mudaito Dynasty based
on Bati-Ginda’e trade route and Islamic learning led by Tola Hanfire;
 Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito & Gobad sultanates;
 Ibn Said/1214-86 wrote that Merca near Shabele was Somalis center;
 Somali Guurti Shir/Elders Council mandated with resolving conflict & crisis.
 Oromo: Gadaa System
•Institution through which Oromo socially organized, administered their affairs,

defended their territory, maintained law & order and managed their economies;
•Eight years represented one Gadaa period, 5-gadaa periods/40 years represented one

generation and nine generations/360 years represented an era;

 Obscure Bidiri Dhoqqe; Taya, Tasaa, Munyo, Suftu, Maddile, Abroji, Dhittacha &

Warra-Daye/Warden ( 360 x 8= 2280 years) and Borana-Barentu (1450 AD-);

Gadaa constituted periodic succession and power sharing to prevent one-man rule;

It deals with education, representation, social cohesion, peace; arara/conflict

resolution, guma/blood compensation, rakoo/marriage and qabiyye/land tenure;

 Women maintained their rights by Sinqe institution and Guduru (pre-pubescent),

Qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), Kalale (Luba & Yuba’s wives) & Cifire

(wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have sacred power.

 Gadaa-Grade Age Roles
Dabbale birth-8 years socialization
Gamme 9-16
Folle 17-24 military training, agriculture etc
Qondala 25-32 military service
Raba-Dori 33-40 candidates for political power
Luba 41-48 Gadaa government leaders
Yuba 49 to 80 senior advisors & ritual experts
S. N. Title Duties

1. Abba Muda Anointment Father

2. Abba Bokku Wooden or Metal Scepter Keeper as State Head Sign

3. Abba Gada Fite Chief Executive (Government Leader)

4. Abba Mati Vice Executive & in Charge of Socio-culture/ada

5. Abba Caffe/A. Dubbi Parliament Chair/Presidium Decision Speaker

6. Abba Sera Laws & Assembly Deliberations Memorizer

7. Abba Alanga Decision Executing Judge

8. Abba Dula Army Commander in Chief /War Leader

9. Abba Sa'a Economic Minister/Treasurer

 Oromo Population Movement
Need for land to accommodate growing human & livestock population;

Christian-Muslim conflict from 13th to 16th centuries might have pressurized mainly pastoral

Oromo groups to leave lands they inhabited for other areas;

Oromo forces passed through corridor b/n Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya;

 When they reached half way between Lakes Abbaya & Hawasa, they penetrated across

Bilatte River to southwest and then headed northwards to Rift Valley Lakes;
 Melba (1522-1530): defeated Abyssinian Regiment Batira Amora led by Fasil;

 Mudana (1530-1538): expanded up to Awash River Edge;

 Kilole (1538-1546): destroyed Adaal Mabraq at Dawwaro;

 Bifole (1546-1554): advanced to Waj & Ereri; crushing Abyssinian Buksar Amora led by

Portuguese Commander Ayres Di’az;

 Michile (1554-1562): defeated Hamalmal at Dago & Jaan Amora corps and Adali led by

Emir Nur at Mount Hazalo and forced Harari to construct Jagol Wall.
 Cont...
Harmufa/Hambisa (1562-1570): fought Minas at Qacina &Wayyata,
occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc; integrated Argobba, Dobba etc
through Moggaasa & Guddifacha;
Roobalee (1570-1578): defeated by Sartsa Dingil’s cavalry led by Azzaj
Halibo at Wayina Daga in c. 1574, but crushed Zara’a Yohannis’ forces;
Birmaji (1578-1586): controlled Ar'ine in Waji, crossed Jama to Wolaqa
and overwhelmed Daragoti;
Mul’ata (1586-1594): attacked Damot, Bizamo, Dambiya & Tigray;
Dulo (1594-1602): expansion to West & Northern parts of the Horn;
•Oromo also expanded to Bur Haqaba & Majertin in Somalia;
•Warday & Orma moved to Kenya & Tanzania respectively.
 Cont…

Different Oromo branches established Gadaa centers:

Oda Bultum-Itu Humabenna; Oda Roba-Sikko Mando (Arsi);

Gayo-Sabbo Gona; Me'e Bokko-Guji;
Oda Nabe-Tulama; Oda Bisil-Mecha;
Oda Bulluq-Jawwi Mecha; Oda Dogi-Ilu;
Oda Hulle-Jimma;, Oda Garado/Makodi-Walo;
Gadaa leaders such as Borana Dawwe Gobbo, Guji Anna Sorra,

Mecha Makko-Bili, Jimma Babbo Koyye and others established

Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws in their respective areas.
 Peoples & States in East: Harar Emirate
•Harar became Adal Walasma capital replacing Dakar in 16thc;
Emir Nur Mujahid made it walled city;
Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) established Harari dynasty;
It was strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94);
Amir’s council, Majilis was supervising Mosque land/Waqf;
Harar’s economic power grew as it controlled trade routes from Aden
Gulf ports, Zeila & Berbera;
Its authority was set up in cooperation with &/or over surrounding Afar,
Argobba, Oromo & Somali through trade, inter-marriage & Islamic
creed;
It was such prominence that attracted Egypt to annex Harar in1875 and
Peoples & States in Central & South Central: Shewa
•Shewa was formed by Agancha chief Negasi Kristos/r.1696-1703 controlling
Asendabo, Debadebo, Makfud, Yifat etc
2nd King/Nigus was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos/r.1703-18;
Abbuyye/Abbiyye/1718-45 centered Haramba but killed by Karrayu beyond Kasam;
Amaha Iyesus/Amayyes/r.1745-75 controlled Bulga, Efrata, Menz & Tegulet
centering Doqaqit later shifted to Ankober; unsuccessfully attempted to control Afar &
Abitchu;
Asfa-Wosen/r.1775-1808 conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete,
Morat & Shewa Meda;
Woson Saged/1808-1812 murdered by his slave in Qundi;
Sahle-Sellasie/r.1813-47 hurried from Sala Dinga to usurper his elder brother,
Becureje and set up Gonchu royal prison.
 Gurage, Hadiyya and Kambata
•Western/Sebat Bet Gurage include Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer, Inamor, Endegegn/
Enner & Gyeto and Northern include Kistane/Aymalal;
 Additional groups included Dobbi, Gadabano, Masqan & Nurana;
 Democratic Institutions: Sebat Bet Yajoka Qicha and Kistane Gordanna Sera;
• Hadiya sub-roups: Mareko, Lemu, Soro, Shashogo & Badowacho;
 Hadiya ruler, Amano; supported by Muslim “Prophet” Bel’am aligned with Ifat
leader, Sabraddin vs Amde-Tsion’s Christian force that crushed them in 1332;
 Mahiqo rebelled vs Zara-Yaqob and replaced by his uncle Bamo in 1445;
 Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to Sartsa-Dengel, but suppressed in 1568/9;
• Kambatissa belongs to Highland East Cushitic;
• 4 communities coalesced around Mount Hambericho by about1550-70;
 Dubamo, Donga & Tembaro trace from Sidama highlands;
 Seven dominant clans (Kambata Lamala).
 Peoples and States in the South: Sidama
•occupy lowlands about 1500masl in Great East Africa Rift Valley cut
through Lakes Hawasa & Abaya up to 3000masl in Arbegona, Bansa &
Aroressa eastern highlands;
Governance led by Mote/king in consultation with Songo/elders
council;
•Ritual leader/Woma was selected for ability as peacemaker, bodily
perfection, orator, wisdom & caution performing sacrifices to spirits,
circumcision & marriage, yet could not partake in war & cattle raiding;
Luwa grades/sets : Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa & Mogissa;
Candidates received five-month military training and war songs like
gerarsha under gaden with deputy/Ja’lawa;
 Gedeo and Konso
•Tradition relates Gedeo ancestors to Daraso, Gujo’s older brother;
7 main clans were grouped into shole batte/senior house of 4 (Doobba’a, Darashsha,
Gorggorshsha & Hanuma) including more than 25 sub-clans and sase batte/junior
house of 3 (Bakarro, Henbba’a & Logoda) having 10 sub-clans;
Baalle seven grades with 10-year each creating 70-year cycle;
Sasserogo/3 territories federation: Sobbho, Ributa & Rikuta;
positions range from top, 8years term Abba Gada down to Hayitcha;
•Affa Konso speakers used to live in heavily forested hill and utilize low-lying
area along Sagan and Woyito river valley as hunting grounds;
Walled villages (paletas) were further divided into wards called Kanta;
Male elders council/hayyota, not hereditary but rotated every 18 years;
Lineage group & generation set/Tselta 18 in Karat, 9 in Takati & 5 in Turo;
Clans: Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata, Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta & Argamyta.
 Peoples and States in Southwestern: Wolayta
•Before Wolayta Kingdom emergence, area known for fertility & moderate climate
with green vegetation was inhabited by communities such as Badia, Badiagadala &
Aruja;
Wolayta-Malla was founded by Motalami in 13th century and ruled to 15th century
end, when it was succeeded by Tigre Dynasty that was supposedly founded by Tigreans
from northern Ethiopia and ruled to late 19th century;
 Kawo (king) was assisted by advisors council;
 All land was nominally owned by king who granted to his dependents based on
gallant deeds in battle and other vital contributions, and could deprive for
disloyalty;
 Practically, land relationships were ordered according to kinship, polity & status;
 Rights over land were vested in lineage, crown & nobility;
 Except workers on crown/royal estate, landholders paid tribute to king;
 Kafa
•Kafa kingdom emerged in 14th century and became prominent around mid-7th century;
Kafan Minjo Dynasty & Ennarya had close contact so that Oromo expansion forced
Ennarya ruling house flee across Gojeb taking Christianity & royal title tato to Kaffa;
Peasants rendered free labor service and tilled royal estates with slaves who were
acquired through raiding/trading/debt payment;
Kafan major trade items such as coffee, slaves, ivory, gold, honey-wax & civet musk
were exported via Kafan markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.
Kafa expanded to Bonesho, Mashengo, Maji, Nao, She & Chara from 17 th-18thcentury;
Tato/king had his major political center at Bonga and another seat was Andarcha;
seven miles to southeast;
Mikrecho/seven advisors council assisted/served to moderate king’s power, but played
important roles in succession;
•Kafa used to dig deep trenches Kuripo as defensive barrier in addition to Gojeb River.
 Yem
•Initially, indigenous dynasty called Dida/Halmam-Gamma ruled from
Dudarkema/Zimarma palace near Oya, in Bor Ama Mountain vicinity;
Its last King Oyokam/Amo Dasha was overthrown by from northerners
who founded Mowa/Howa dynasty with center at Angari in 14th century;
Amno/king acted as chief priest with divinity attributes;
Astessor/12 members council with Waso/chairperson assisted Amno;
Erasho/provincial governors were responsible for digging bero/ditches
and erecting nearly fifty-meter wooden/iron pillars at Yem center around
Brisi Bita so that war father, Nomiaw could patrol surroundings;
Wosi carried messages from Amno to Gagna/district chiefs & vice
versa.
 Dawuro
•Dawurotsuwa speakers’ topography mostly is mountainous & plateau at
central, and flat & plain at Gojeb & Omo river basins, being divide in to
geziya/ highland, dashuwa/mid-altitude & gad’a/lowland;
•Major clans: Malla, Dogolla, & Amara, regarded as Gok’as/K’omos;
• Kawuka dynasty created big state extended b/n Gojeb & Omo rivers
in north, east & south and Kaffa high mountains in west by c. 1700;
• Kati Irashu & Kati Halala were Kawuka famous leaders; the later,
who was Kafa king grandson, incorporated Konta and is known for
his stone fortifications to defend his territories from outsiders.
 Gamo
•Gamo inhabited from Lakes Chamo & Abaya to Gughe Mount & beyond;
Gamo landscape is divided into densely populated geze/highland growing crops like
Ensete Ventricosum, barely, wheat, Eragrotis teff, peas, beans & cabbage as well as
bazo/lowland growing maize & sweet potato, serving as hunting fields and largely
settled by people who escaped coercion by state at political center;
Farmers kept cattle for food, farming & manure while artisans (smiths, potters, tanners
weavers…) produced weapons, tools, musical & funeral instruments, clothes…
Woga/interrelated laws bound in delicate balance defined geze land-use forming
natural resource management and governing everything from interpersonal relations to
pasture, forest, soil & water conservation & preservation;
Dere/scattered villages communities each having kawo/hereditary ruler who offered
sacrifices; halaqa/huduga/maga/initiated married men provisionally elected to
positions by dulata/assembly, and dubusha/congregation site from 16th-19thcenturies;
Baira/seniority was based on primogeniture agnatic genealogical clans hierarchy.
 Ari
•Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom,
Bodi, Male etc inhabited Omo River basin since early times;
 Ari language is called Araf;
 Ari were organized into ten independent clan based chiefdoms;
 Hereditary clan chief known as Babi headed each chiefdom with dual
responsibilities/political & ritual;
 Babi’s assistants from officially appointed figures included Godimis/
religious leaders, Zis/village heads & Tsoikis/intelligence agents.
Peoples & States in West: Berta, Gumuz & Anywa
•Berta settlement in Beni-Shangul dates from 16 century;
th

 Islamic influence had been strong on Berta and other Nilotes because
of trade and social contacts with northern Sudan;
• Gumuz are mentioned by Scottish explorer James Bruce, who notes
that they hunted with bows & arrows;
 Gumuz language is subdivided in several dialects;

• Dha-anywaa speakers predominantly inhabited along Pibor, Sobat,

Gila, Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro & Alwero Rivers on Gambella
western borderlands; Anywa founding father/Oshoda;
• Each Anywa village lived under Kuaari/chief who with Nyiye/nobles
managed farm & grazing fields distribution, settled disputes...
 Nuer & Majang
•Nuer/Nei Ti Naath/human beings lived across Sudan Bahr el-Ghazal &
Upper Nile savannas & marshes;
 They had been largely settled in Gambella plains along Sobat & Baro
Rivers and Sudan parts since 19th century;
 Cattle had spiritual & wealth values supplemented by crop
production;
 Nuer age-set system combines social & political functions;
 Nuer boys had to pass through severe test and series rites before they
were initiated into adulthood;
•Majang origin is related to Boma plateau in South Sudan;
 Majang ritual leaders (tapa/singular tapad) were from Meelanir clan,
 Kunama
•Kunama/Baza inhabited Western Eritrea on Gash & Tekkeze Rivers and
Northwestern & Western Tigray;
 Arab traveler al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A. D. mentions Baza kingdom;
 Customary institution/sanga-anene, held by males and transmitted
hereditarily from eldest brother to next born on matrilineal line,
mandated with admin; granting asylum to new comers in sanctuary
compounds and performing reconciliation rituals in homicides;.
 Used hoe, spades, sickles, ox/camel-drawn plough & terracing;
 staple crop is sorghum (kina), with ceremonial value;
 Other crops are millet (borta/beca), pulses & maize (afokina).
 Gondarine Period
•Alata, Guzara near Enfranz, Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz & Azazo;
•Gondar achieved glory during Fasiledas/r.1632–67, Yohannes I/r.1667-
82 & Iyasu I/r.1682- 1706; royal prison was set up at Amba Wahni;
 Yohannes I established separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem;
Iyasu I/the Great reformed land tenure, introduced land measurement
in Begemder, taxes & customs and revised Fetha Negest/civil code;
 Iyasu’s was assassinated by faction led by his son, Tekle-Haymanot;
 Tekle-Haymanot was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708;
 Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was also poisoned
in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and
replaced by Bakkafa in 1721.
 cont'd...
 Bakkafa’s wife Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-
Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767) dominated Gondar from 1728 to
1768 during Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69);
 To counter Wallo’s growing power and challenge led by her
daughter-in-law Wubit Amito, Queen Mentewab sought politically
astute and militarily powerful Tigray Ras Mika'el Sehul’s support;
 Sehul succeeded in stabilizing situation;
 Sehul refused to return to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas;
 Sehul killed Iyoas and replaced by 70 years old Yohannes II;
 Sehul soon killed Yohannes II and put his son Takla-Haymanot II
(1769-77) on power.
 Gondarine Achievements
Paintings on manuscripts, wood, ornaments, weapons & churches built

by Mentwab were known by beautiful paintings, cross and art works;

Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced many manuscripts;
 Gospels, Mary Miracles, Ethiopian Saints Lives and Litanies, and
many other illuminated manuscripts were also produced;
Gondar is also known for traditional medicine, music & poetry;
Trade & urbanization attracted Indians, Greeks, Armenians…
Gondar had an estimated 60,000-70, 000 population;
It served as EOC center (Abun & Ichege residence) until mid 19th
Century as Churches at Gondar known by excellence in teaching
aqwaqwam, liturgical chanting…
 Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
•Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta & Walo lords coalition crushed Mika’el at Sarba-Kussa, 1771;
Ali Gwangul/I/the Great/Talaq was considered as Yejju dynasty, leading power
founder with center at Debretabor in Begemedi in 1786.
Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who made incessant
struggle against Enderta Ras Walde-Silassie and Agame Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu;
Yimam (r.1825-8) defeated Simen Hayle-Mariam Gebre in 1826;
Dambiya Maru was also killed at Koso-Ber battle in 1827;
Yajju Marye/1828-1831 & Sabagadis confronted at Dabra Abay/May Aslamay battle
in which both were killed even if it was Yajju who got final victory under Dori
leadership in 1831.