SJB Institute of Technology: CO & ARM Microcontrollers (21EC52)

║JAI SRI GURUDEV║
Sri AdichunchanagiriShikshana Trust (R)
SJB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

BGS Health & Education City, Kengeri , Bangalore – 60 .
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
CO & ARM Microcontrollers

[21EC52]
Module-1
Basic Structure of Computers & Input/Output Organization
Dr. Supreeth H S G
Associate Professor
Dept. of ECE SJBIT
1
VTU Syllabus
Basic Structure of Computers: Basic Operational Concepts, Bus Structures,
Performance – Processor Clock, Basic Performance Equation, Pipelining and
superscalar operation,Clock Rate, Performance Measurement.
Memory locations and addresses, Memory operations, Instructions and Instruction

sequencing, Addressing modes, Assembly Language, Basic I/O operations, Stacks and
Queues, Subroutines, Additional Instructions
Text Book 1: Chapter 1 – 1.3, 1.4, 1.6 (1.6.1-1.6.4, 1.6.7), Chapter 2 – 2.2 to 2.10
Input/Output Organization: Accessing I/O Devices, Interrupts – Interrupt Hardware,

Direct Memory Access, Buses, Interface Circuits, Standard I/O Interfaces – PCI Bus,
SCSI Bus, USB.
Text Book 1: Chapter 4 – 4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7
Text Book:
Carl Hamacher, Zvonko Vranesic, Safwat Zaky, Computer Organization, 5th Edition,
Tata McGraw Hill, 2002. (Listed topics only from Chapters 1, 2, 4, 5, 8).
2
Contents
1. Basic Operational Concepts
2. Bus Structures
3. Performance –
Processor Clock
Basic Performance Equation
Pipelining and Superscalar Operation
Clock Rate
Performance Measurement.
4. Memory locations and addresses

5. Memory operations
6. Instructions and Instruction sequencing
7. Addressing modes
8. Assembly Language
9. Basic I/O operations
10. Stacks and Queues,
11. Subroutines
12. Additional Instructions
The Computer Revolution
 Progress in computer technology
 Underpinned by Moore’s Law
 Makes novel applications feasible
 Computers in automobiles
 Cell phones
 Human genome project
 World Wide Web
 Search Engines
 Computers are universal
4
Classes of Computers
 Desktop/laptop computers
 General purpose, variety of software
 Subject to cost/performance tradeoff
 Workstations
 More computing power used in engg. applications, graphics etc.
 Enterprise System/ Mainframes
 Used for business data processing
 Server computers (Low End Range)
 Network based
 High capacity, performance, reliability
 Range from small servers to building sized
 Supercomputer (High End Range)
 Large scale numerical calculation such as weather forecasting, aircraft
design
 Embedded computers
 Hidden as components of systems
 Stringent power/performance/cost constraints
5
What You Will Learn
 How programs are translated into
the machine language
 And how the hardware executes them
 The hardware/software interface
 What determines program performance
 And how it can be improved
 How hardware designers
improve performance
6
Understanding Performance
 Algorithm
 Determines number of operations executed
 Programming language, compiler, architecture
Determine number of machine instructions executed
per operation
 Processor and memory system
 Determine how fast instructions are executed
 I/O system (including OS)
 Determines how fast I/O operations are executed
7
Functional Units
8
Functional Units
Arithmetic
Input and
logic
Memory
Output Control
I/O Processor
Figure 1.1. Basic functional units of a computer.

9
Information Handled by a Computer
 Instructions/machine instructions
 Govern the transfer of information within a computer as
well as between the computer and its I/O devices
 Specify the arithmetic and logic to be
operations performed
 Program
 Data
 Used as operands by the instructions
 Source program
 Encoded in binary code – 0 and 1
10
Memory Unit
 Store programs and data
 Two classes of storage
 Primary storage
 Fast
 Programs must be stored in memory while they are being executed
 Large number of semiconductor storage cells
 Processed in words
 Address
 RAM and memory access time
 Memory hierarchy – cache, main memory
 Secondary storage – larger and cheaper
11
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
 Most computer operations are executed in
ALU of the processor.
 – Load the operands into memory
 – bring them to the processor
 – perform operation in ALU
 – store the result back to memory or retain in the
processor.
 Registers
 Fast control of ALU
12
Control Unit
 All computer operations are controlled by the control
unit.
 The timing signals that govern the I/O transfers are also
generated by the control unit.
 Control unit is usually distributed throughout
the machine instead of standing alone.
 Operations of a computer:
 Accept information in the form of programs and data through
an input unit and store it in the memory
 Fetch the information stored in the memory, under program control,
• into an ALU, where the information is processed
 Output the processed information through an output unit
 Control all activities inside the machine through a control unit
13
The operations of a computer
 The computer accepts information in the form of
programs and data through an input unit and
stores it in the memory.
 Information stored in the memory is fetched under
program control into an arithmetic and logic unit,
where it is processed.
 Processed information leaves the computer through
an output unit.
 All activities in the computer are directed by the
control unit.
14
1. Basic Operational
Concepts
15
Review
 Activity in a computer is governed by instructions.
 To perform a task, an appropriate program consisting of
a list of instructions is stored in the memory.
 Individual instructions are brought from the memory into
the processor, which executes the specified operations.
 Data to be used as operands are also stored in the
memory.
16
A Typical Instruction
 Add LOCA, R0
 Add the operand at memory location LOCA to the
operand in a register R0 in the processor.
 Place the sum into register R0.
 The original contents of LOCA are preserved.
 The original contents of R0 is overwritten.
 Instruction is fetched from the memory into the
processor – the operand at LOCA is fetched and
added to the contents of R0 – the resulting sum is
stored in register R0.
17
Separate Memory Access and ALU
Operation
 Load LOCA, R1
 Add R1, R0
 Whose contents will be overwritten?
18
Connection Between the Processor and the
Memory
Memory
MAR MDR
Control
PC R0
R1
Processor
IR
ALU
R
n- 1
n- general purpose
registers
Fig. Connections between the processor and the memory.
19
Registers
 Instruction register (IR)
 Program counter (PC)
 General-purpose register (R0 – Rn-1)
 Memory address register (MAR)
 Memory data register (MDR)
20
Typical Operating Steps
 Programs reside in the memory through input
devices
 PC is set to point to the first instruction
 The contents of PC are transferred to MAR
 A Read signal is sent to the memory
 The first instruction is read out and
loaded into MDR
 The contents of MDR are transferred to IR
 Decode and execute the instruction
21
Typical Operating Steps (Cont’)
 Get operands for ALU
 General-purpose register
 Memory (address to MAR – Read – MDR to ALU)
 Perform operation in ALU
 Store the result back
 To general-purpose register
 To memory (address to MAR, result to MDR – Write)
 During the execution, PC
is incremented to the next instruction
22
Interrupt
 Normal execution of programs may be preempted if
some device requires urgent servicing.
 The normal execution of the current program must be
interrupted – the device raises an interrupt signal.
 Interrupt-service routine
 Current system information backup and restore (PC,
general-purpose registers, control information, specific
information)
23
2. Bus Structures
 There are many ways to connect
different parts inside a computer together.
 A group of lines that serves as a connecting
path for several devices is called a bus.
 Address/data/control
24
Bus Structure
 Single-bus
 Multiple Buses
25
Speed Issue
 Different devices have different transfer/operate
speed.
 If the speed of bus is bounded by the slowest
device connected to it, the efficiency will be very
low.
 How to solve this?
 A common approach – use buffers.
e.g.- Printing the characters
26
3. Performance
27
Performance
 The most important measure of a computer is
how quickly it can execute programs.
 Three factors affect performance:
 Hardware design
 Instruction set
 Compiler
28
Performance
 Processor time to execute a program depends on the hardware
involved in the execution of individual machine instructions.
Main Cache
memory Processor
memory
Bus
Figure 1.5. The processor cache.

29
Performance
 The processor and a relatively small
cache
memory can be fabricated on a single
integrated circuit chip.
 Speed
 Cost
 Memory management
30
3.1Processor Clock
 Clock, clock cycle (P), and clock rate (R=1/P)
 The execution of each instruction is divided into
several steps (Basic Steps), each of which
completes in one clock cycle.
 Hertz – cycles per second
31
3.2 Basic Performance Equation
 T – processor time required to execute a program that has been
prepared in high-level language
 N – number of actual machine language instructions needed to
complete the execution (note: loop)
 S – average number of basic steps needed to execute
one machine instruction. Each step completes in one clock cycle
 R – clock rate
 Note: these are not independent to each other
NS
T
R
 How to improve T?
 Reduce N and S, Increase R, but these affect 32
one another
3.3 Pipeline and Superscalar Operation
 Instructions are not necessarily executed one after another.
 The value of S doesn’t have to be the number of clock cycles
to execute one instruction.
 Pipelining – overlapping the execution of
successive instructions.
 Add R1, R2, R3 at the same time processor reads
next
instruction in memory.
33
Pipeline and Superscalar Operation
 Superscalar operation – multiple

instruction pipelines are implemented in the processor.
 Goal – reduce S (could become <1!)
34
3.4 Clock Rate
 Increase clock rate
 Improve the integrated-circuit (IC) technology to make the
circuits faster
 Reduce the amount of processing done in one basic step
(however, this may increase the number of basic steps needed)
 Increases in R that are entirely caused by
improvements in IC technology affect all aspects
of the processor’s operation equally except the
time to access the main memory.
35
3.5 Performance Measurement
 T is difficult to compute.
 Measure computer performance using benchmark programs.
 System Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC) selects and publishes
representative application programs for different application domains, together
with test results for many commercially available computers.
 Compile and run (no simulation)
 Reference computer
Running tim e o n the

S PEC r a tin g 
re fe re nc ec o m pute r Running tim e o n
n 1
the c o m pute r unde r te st
S PEC ra tin g  ( 
i1 S PEC i )
n n is the number of program in the suite
36
4. Memory Location, Addresses, and Operation
n bits
first word
 Memory
second word
consists
of many millions of
storage cells,
•
each of which can •
•
store 1 bit.
 Data is i th word
accessed in n-bit
usually
groups. n is called •
word length. •
•
last word
37
Fig: Memory words.
Memory Location, Addresses, and Operation
 32-bit word length example

32 bits
b1 b0
••
b31 b30
•
Sign bit: b31= 0 for positive numbers
b31= 1 for negative numbers
(a) A signed integer
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits
ASCII ASCII ASCII ASCII

character character character character 44
(b) Four characters

 To retrieve information from memory, either for one

word or one byte (8-bit), addresses for each location are
needed.
 A k-bit address memory has 2k memory locations,
namely 0 – 2k-1, called memory space.
 24-bit memory: 224 = 16,777,216 = 16M (1M=220)
 32-bit memory: 232 = 4G (1G=230)
 1K(kilo)=210
 1T(tera)=240
39
 It is impractical to assign distinct addresses to

individual bit locations in the memory.
 The most practical assignment is to have
successive addresses refer to successive byte
locations in the memory – byte- addressable
memory.
 Byte locations have addresses 0, 1, 2, … If word
length is 32 bits, they successive words are
located at addresses 0, 4, 8,…
40
Big-Endian and Little-Endian
Assignments
Big-Endian: lower byte addresses are used for the most significant bytes of the word
Little-Endian: opposite ordering. lower byte addresses are used for the less significant bytes
of the word
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits
Word Word
address Byte address address Byte address
0 0 1 2 3 0 3 2 1 0
4 4 5 6 7 4 7 6 5 4
• •
• •
• •
k k k k
k k k k k k
2 -4 2 -4 2 -3 2- 2 2 - 1 2 - 4 2- 1 2 - 2 2 -3 2 -4
47
(a) Big-endian assignment (b) Little-endian assignment
Figure 2.7. Byte and word addressing.
 Address ordering of bytes

 Word alignment
 Words are said to be aligned in memory if they begin
at a byte addr. that is a multiple of the num of bytes in
a word.
 16-bit word: word addresses: 0, 2, 4,….
 32-bit word: word addresses: 0, 4, 8,….
 64-bit word: word addresses: 0, 8,16,….
 Access numbers, characters, and
character strings
42
5. Memory Operation
 Load (or Read or Fetch)
 Copy the content. The memory content doesn’t change.
 Address – Load
 Registers can be used
 Store (or Write)
 Overwrite the content in memory
 Address and Data – Store
 Registers can be used
43
6. Instruction and
Instruction
Sequencing
44
“Must-Perform” Operations
 Data transfers between the memory and the
processor registers
 Arithmetic and logic operations on data
 Program sequencing and control
 I/O transfers
45
Register Transfer Notation
 Identify a location by a symbolic name standing
for its hardware binary address (LOC, R0,…)
 Contents of a location are denoted by placing
square brackets around the of the

name location (R1←[LOC], R3 ←[R1]+
[R2])
 Register Transfer Notation (RTN)
46
Assembly Language Notation
 Represent machine instructions and
programs.
 Move LOC, R1 => R1←[LOC]
 Add R1, R2, R3 => R3 ←[R1]+[R2]
47
CPU Organization
 Single Accumulator
 Result usually goes to the Accumulator
 Accumulator has to be saved to memory quite
often
 General Register
 Registers hold operands thus reduce memory
traffic
 Register bookkeeping
 Stack
 Operands and result are always in the stack 48
Instruction Formats
 Three-Address Instructions
 ADD R2, R3, R1 R1 ← [R2]
+ [R]3
 Two-Address Instructions
 ADD R2, R1 R1 ← [R1] + [R2]
 One-Address
 ADD M Instructions AC ← [AC] +
 Zero-Address Instructions M[AR]
 ADD TOS ← [TOS] + [TOS – 1]
 RISC Instructions
 Lots of registers. Memory is restricted to Load & Store
49
Instruction Formats
Example: Evaluate (A+B)  (C+D)
 Three-Address
1. AD A, B, R1 ; R1 ← M[A] + M[B]
D C, D, R2 ; R2 ← M[C] + M[D]
2. AD R1, R2, X ; M[X] ← [R1] 
D [R2]
3. MU
L
50
Instruction Formats
 Two-Address
1. MO A, R1 ; R1 ← M[A]
V B, R1 ; R1 ← [R1] + M[B]
2. ADD C, R2 ; R2 ← M[C]
3. MO D, R2 ; R2 ← [R2] + M[D]
V R2, R1 ; R1 ← [R1]  [R2]
4. ADD R1, X ; M[X] ← [R1]
5. MUL
6. MO
V 51
Instruction Formats
 One-Address
1. LOAD ; AC ← M[A]
A ; AC ← [AC] +
2.
3. ADD
STORE T M[B]
4.
B
LOAD ; M[T] ← [AC]
C ; AC ← M[C]
5. ADD ; AC ← [AC] +
7.
D X
STORE M[D]
6. MUL ; AC ← [AC]  M[T]
T ; M[X] ← [AC] 52
Instruction Formats
 Zero-Address
1. PUSH ; TOS ← [A]

A ; TOS ← [B]
2. PUSH ; TOS ← [A + B]
B ; TOS ← [C]
3. ADD ; TOS ← [D]
4. PUSH ; TOS ← [C + D]
C
; TOS ← [C+D][A+B]
5. PUSH
D ; M[X] ← [TOS]
53
6. ADD
Instruction Formats
 RISC
1. LOAD A, R1 ; R1 ← M[A]
2. LOAD B, R2 ; R2 ← M[B]
3. LOAD C, R3 ; R3 ← M[C]
4. LOAD D, R4 ; R4 ← M[D]
5. R1, R2, R1 ; R1 ← [R1] + [R2]
ADD
6. R3, R4, R3 ; R3 ← [R3] + [R4]
ADD
7. R1, R3, R1 ; R1 ← [R1]  [R3]
MUL
Using Registers
 Registers are faster
 Shorter instructions
 The number of registers is smaller (e.g. 32 registers
need 5 bits)
 Potential speedup
 Minimize the frequency with which data is
moved back and forth between the memory and
processor registers.
61
Instruction Execution and
Straight-Line Sequencing
Address Contents
i Move A,R0
Assumptions:
Begin execution here
3-instruction - One memory operand
i+4 Add B,R0 program
segment per instruction
i+8 Move R0,C
- 32-bit word length
- Memory is byte
addressable
A - Full memory address can
be directly specified
in a single-word
B Data for instruction
the program
Two-phase procedure
-Instruction fetch
-Instruction execute
C
62
Figure 2.8. A program for C   + 

i Move NUM1,R0
i+4 Add NUM2,R0
i+8 Add NUM3,R0
•
Branching •
•
Add NUMn,R0
i + 4n - 4
Move R0,SUM
i + 4n
•
•
•
SUM
NUM1
NUM2 •
•
•
NUMn
63
Figure 2.9. A straight-line program for adding n numbers.
Branching
Move N,R1
Clear R0
LOOP
Determine address of
"Next" number and add
Branch target Program "Next" number to R0
loop
Decrement R1
Conditional branch Branch>0 LOOP

Move R0,SUM
•
•
•
SUM
N n
NUM1
Figure 2.10. Using a loop to add n numbers.
NUM2 •
•
•
NUMn 64
Condition Codes
 Condition code flags (bits)
 Condition code register / status register
 N (negative)
 Z (zero)
 V (overflow)
 C (carry)
 Different instructions affect different flags
59
Conditional Branch Instructions
 Example: A: 11110000
 A: 11110000 +(−B): 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
0
 B: 00010100 11011100
C=1 Z=0
S=1
V=0
60
Status Bits
Cn-1 A B
Cn ALU
F
V Z N C
Fn-1
Zero Check
61
7. Addressing Modes
62
Generating Memory Addresses
 How to specify the address of branch target?
 Can we give the memory operand address
directly in a single Add instruction in the loop?
 Use a register to hold the address of NUM1;
then increment by 4 on each pass through the
loop.
63
Addressing Modes
Name Assembler syntax Addressingfunction
 The different ways
in Immediate #Value Op erand = Value
an
which operand
the locationis of
specified in an Register Ri EA = Ri
instruction are referred
to as addressing modes. Absolute (Direct) LOC EA = LOC
Indirect (Ri ) EA = [Ri ]

(LOC) EA = [LOC]
Index X(R i ) EA = [Ri ] + X
Basewith index (Ri ,Rj ) EA = [Ri ] + [Rj ]

Basewith index X(R i ,Rj ) EA = [Ri ] + [Rj ] + X
and offset
Relative X(PC) EA = [PC] + X
Autoincrement (Ri )+ EA = [Ri ] ;

Increment R i
Autodecrement  (Ri ) Decrement R i ; 70

EA = [Ri ]
Effective Address (EA)
 In the addressing modes that follow, the
instruction does not give the operand or its
address explicitly. Instead, it provides
information from which an effective address
(EA) can be derived by the processor when the
instruction is executed.
 The effective address is then used to access the
operand.
65
Addressing Modes
 Implied Opcode Mode ...
 AC is implied in “ADD M[AR]” in “One-
Address” instr.
 TOS is implied in “ADD” in “Zero-Address” instr.
 Immediate
The use of a constant in “MOV 5, R1”
or “MOV #5, R1” i.e. R1 ← 5
MOV #NUM1, R2 ; to copy the variable memory address
 Register
 Indicate which register holds the operand
 Direct Address
 Use the given address to access a memory location

 MoveNUM1,
E.g. Move R0, SUMR1
66
Addressing Modes
Indirect Addressing
 Indirect Addressing
 Indirection and Pointer
 Indirect addressing a general purpose
through register.
 Indicate the register (e.g. R1) that ADD (R1), R0
holds the address of the variable .
(e.g. B) that holds the operand .
.
ADD (R1), R0 B Operand
 The register or memory location
that contain the address of an
R1 B
operand is called a pointer
73
Addressing Modes
Indirect Addressing
 Indirect Addressing
 Indirect addressing through a memory addressing.
 Indicate the memory ADD (A), R0
variable
(e.g. A )that holds the address .
of the variable (e.g. B) that .
.
holds the operand B Operand
ADD (A), R0
A B
68
Indirect Addressing
Example
 Addition of N numbers
1. Move N,R1 ; N = Numbers to add
2. Move #NUM1,R2 ; R2= Address of 1st no.
3. Clear R0 ; R0 = 00
4. Loop : Add (R2), R0 ; R0 = [NUM1] + [R0]
5. Add #4, R2 ; R2= To point to the next
; number
6. Decrement R1 ; R1 = [R1] -1
7. Branch>0 Loop ; Check if R1>0 or not if
; yes go to Loop
8. Move R0, SUM ; SUM= Sum of all no.
69
Example
1. Move N,R1 ;N=5
2. Move #NUM1,R2 ; R2= 10000H
3. Clear R0 ; R0 = 00
4. Loop : Add (R2), R0 ; R0 = 10 + 00 = 10
5. Add #4, R2 ; R2 = 10004H
6. Decrement R1 ; R1 = 4
7. Branch>0 Loop ; Check if R1>0 if
; yes go to Loop
8. Move R0, SUM ; SUM=
70
Example
1. Move N,R1 ;N=5
2. Move #NUM1,R2 ; R2= 10000H
3. Clear R0 ; R0 = 00
4. Loop : Add (R2), R0 ; R0 = 20 + 10 = 30
5. Add #4, R2 ; R2 = 10008H
; yes go to Loop
71
Example
1. Move N,R1 ;N=5
2. Move #NUM1,R2 ; R2= 10000H
3. Clear R0 ; R0 = 00
4. Loop : Add (R2), R0 ; R0 = 30 + 30 = 60
5. Add #4, R2 ; R2 = 1000CH
; yes go to Loop
72
Example
1. Move N,R1 ;N=5
2. Move #NUM1,R2 ; R2= 10000H
3. Clear R0 ; R0 = 00
4. Loop : Add (R2), R0 ; R0 = 40 + 60 = 10 0
5. Add #4, R2 ; R2 = 10010H
; yes go to Loop
73
Example
1. Move N,R1 ;N=5
2. Move #NUM1,R2 ; R2= 10000H
3. Clear R0 ; R0 = 00
4. Loop : Add (R2), R0 ; R0 = 50 + 100 = 150
5. Add #4, R2 ; R2 = 10014H
; yes go to Loop
74
Example
1. Move N,R1 ;N=5
2. Move #NUM1,R2 ; R2= 10000H
3. Clear R0 ; R0 = 00
4. Loop : Add (R2), R0 ; R0 = 50 + 100 = 150
5. Add #4, R2 ; R2 = 10014H
; yes go to Loop
8. Move R0, SUM ; SUM = 150
75
Addressing Modes
Indexing and Arrays
 Indexing and Array
 The EA of the operand is generated by adding a
constant value to the contents of a register.
 X(Ri) ; EA= X + (Ri) X= Signed number
 X defined as offset or displacement
76
Addressing Modes
Indexing and Arrays
 Index mode – the effective address of the operand is
generated by adding a constant value to the contents of
a register.
 Index register
 X(Ri): EA = X + [Ri]
 The constant X may be given either as an explicit
number or as a symbolic name representing a
numerical value.
 If X is shorter than a word, sign-extension is needed.
77
Addressing Modes
Indexing and Arrays
 In general, the Index mode facilitates access to
an operand whose location is defined relative to
a reference point within the data structure in
which the operand appears.
 2D Array
 (Ri, Rj) so EA = [Ri] + [Rj]
 Rj is called the base register
 3D Array
 X(Ri, Rj) so EA = X + [Ri] + [Rj]
78
Addressing Modes
Indexing and Arrays
Address Memory Address Memory
Add 20(R1), R2 Add 10000H(R1), R2
. .
. .
. .
. .
10000H 10000H
. .
. .
Offset=20 Offset=20
. .
. .
10020H Operand 10020H Operand
R1 10000H R1 20H
Offset is given as a Constant Offset is in the index register

79
Addressing Modes
Indexing and Arrays
 Array
 E.g. List of students marks
Address Memory Comments
N n No. of students
LIST Student ID1
LIST+4 Test 1
Student 1
LIST+8 Test 2
LIST+12 Test 3
LIST+16 Student ID2
LIST+20 Test 1
Student 2
LIST+24 Test 2
LIST+28 Test 3
 Indexed addressing used in accessing test marks from the

list 86
Addressing Modes
 Base Register
 EA = Base Register (Ri) + Relative Addr (X)
Could be Positive or X=2

Negative
(2’s Complement)
+
100 0 0 0 5
Ri = 100
101 0 0 1 2
102 0 0 0 A
Usually points to 103 0 1 0 7
the beginning of 104 0 0 5 9
an array
81
Addressing Modes
Indexing and Arrays
 Program to find the sum of marks of all subjects of reach students and store it in
memory.
1. Move #LIST, R0
2. Clear R1
3. Clear R2
4. Move
5. #SUM,
6. Loop : R2
7. Move N, R4
8. Add 4(R0), R1
9. Add 8(R0), R1
10. Add 12(R0),R1
11. Move R1, (R2)
12. Clear R1
13. Add #16, R0
14. Add #4, R2
Decrement R4
Branch>0 Loop
82
Addressing Modes
 Indexed
 EA = Index Register (Ri) + Relative Addr (Rj)
Useful with Ri = 2
“Autoincrement” or
“Autodecrement”
+
100
Rj = 100
101
Could be Positive or
Negative 102 1 1 0
(2’s Complement) 103 A
104
83
Addressing Modes
Relative Addressing
 Relative mode – the effective address is determined by
the Index mode using the program counter in place of the
general-purpose register.
 X(PC) – note that X is a signed number
 Branch>0 LOOP
 This location is computed by specifying it as an offset
from the current value of PC.
 Branch target may be either before or after the branch
instruction, the offset is given as a singed num.
84
Addressing Modes
Relative Addressing
 Relative Address
0
 EA = PC + Relative Addr (X) 1
PC = 2 2
100
X = 100
101
102 1 1 0
Could be Positive or 103 A
Negative 104
(2’s Complement)
85
Addressing Modes
Additional Modes
 Autoincrement mode – the effective address of the operand is the
contents of a register specified in the instruction. After accessing
the operand, the contents of this register are automatically
incremented to point to the next item in a list.
 (Ri)+. The increment is 1 for byte-sized operands, 2 for 16-bit
operands, and 4 for 32-bit operands.
 Autodecrement mode: -(Ri) – decrement first
Move N,R1
#NUM1,R2 Initialization
Move R0
LOOP Clear (R2)+,R0
Add R1
Decrement LOOP
Branch>0 R0,SUM
Move
Figure 2.16. The Autoincrement addressing mode used in the program of Figure 2.12.
86
8.Assembly Language
87
Assembly Language
 Machine instructions are represented by patterns of 0s and 1s. So these
patterns represented by symbolic names called “mnemonics”
 E.g. Load, Store, Add, Move, BR, BGTZ
 A complete set of such symbolic names and rules for their use
constitutes a programming language, referred to as an assembly
language.
 The set of rules for using the mnemonics and for specification of
complete instructions and programs is called the syntax of the
language.
 Programs written in an assembly language can be automatically
translated into a sequence of machine instructions by a program called
an assembler.
 The assembler program is one of a collection of utility programs that
are a part of the system software of a computer.
88
Assembly Language
 The user program in its original alphanumeric
text format is called a source program, and the
assembled machine-language program is called
an object program.
 The assembly language for a given computer is
not case sensitive.
 E.g. MOVE R1, SUM
Opcode Operand(s) or Address(es)
89
Assembler Directives
 In addition to providing a mechanism for representing
instructions in a program, assembly language allows the
programmer to specify other information needed to translate the
source program into the object program.
 Assign numerical values to any names used in a program.
 For e,g, name TWENTY is used to represent the value 20. This fact
may be conveyed to the assembler program through an equate
statement such as TWENTY EQU 20
 If the assembler is to produce an object program according to
this arrangement, it has to know
 How to interpret the names
 Where to place the instructions in the memory
 Where to place the data operands in the memory
90
Assembly language representation for the
program
 Label: Operation Operand(s) Comment
91
Assembly and Execution of
Programs
 A source program written in an assembly language must be assembled
into a machine language object program before it can be executed. This
is done by the assembler program, which replaces all symbols denoting
operations and addressing modes with the binary codes used in
machine instructions, and replaces all names and labels with their
actual values.
 A key part of the assembly process is determining the values that
replace the names. Assembler keep track of Symbolic name and Label
name, create table called symbol table.
 The symbol table created by scan the source program twice.
 A branch instruction is usually implemented in machine code by
specifying the branch target as the distance (in bytes) from the present
address in the Program Counter to the target instruction. The assembler
computes this branch offset, which can be positive or negative, and
puts it into the machine instruction.
92
Assembly and Execution of
Programs
 The assembler stores the object program on the secondary storage device available in
the computer, usually a magnetic disk. The object program must be loaded into the main
memory before it is executed. For this to happen, another utility program called a
loader must already be in the memory.
 Executing the loader performs a sequence of input operations needed to transfer the
machine-language program from the disk into a specified place in the memory. The
loader must know the length of the program and the address in the memory where it
will be stored.
 The assembler usually places this information in a header preceding the object
code (Like start/end offset address).
 When the object program begins executing, it proceeds to completion unless there are
logical errors in the program. The user must be able to find errors easily.
 The assembler can only detect and report syntax errors. To help the user find other
programming errors, the system software usually includes a debugger program.
 This program enables the user to stop execution of the object program at some points of
interest and to examine the contents of various processor registers and memory
locations.
93
Number Notation
 Decimal Number
 ADD #93,R1
 Binary Number
 ADD #%0101110,R1
 Hexadecimal Number
 ADD #$5D,R1
94
Types of Instructions
 Data Transfer Instructions
Name Mnemonic
Data value is
Load LD not
Store ST modified
Move MOV
Exchange XCH
Input IN
Output OUT
Push PUSH
Pop POP
95
Data Transfer Instructions
Mode Assembly Register Transfer
Direct address LD ADR AC ← M[ADR]
Indirect address LD @ADR AC ← M[M[ADR]]
Relative address LD $ADR AC ← M[PC+ADR]
Immediate operand LD #NBR AC ← NBR
Index addressing LD ADR(X) AC ← M[ADR+XR]
Register LD R1 AC ← R1
Register indirect LD (R1) AC ← M[R1]
Autoincrement LD (R1)+ AC ← M[R1], R1 ← R1+1
96
Data Manipula tion Instructions
 Arithmetic Name Mn emonic
Increment INC
 Logical & Bit Mani pulation Decrement DEC
Add ADD
 Shift Subtract SUB
Multiply MUL
Divide DIV
Name Mnemonic Add with carry ADDC
Clear CLR Subtract with borrow SUBB
Complement COM Name Negate Mnemonic N EG
AND AND Logical shift right SHR
OR OR Logical shift left SHL
Exclusive-OR XOR Arithmetic shift right SHRA
Clear carry CLRC Arithmetic shift left SHLA
Set carry SETC Rotate right ROR
Complement carry COMC Rotate left ROL
Enable interrupt EI Rotate right through carry RORC 103
Disable interrupt DI Rotate left through carry ROLC
Program Control Instructions
Name Mnemonic
Branch BR
Jump JMP
Skip SKP
Subtract A – B but
Call CALL don’t store the result
Return RET
Compare CMP
(Subtract) 1011000
Test (AND) TST 1
00001000
Mask
0000000
0
98
Conditional Branch Instructions
Mnemonic Branch Condition Tested Condition

BZ Branch if zero Z=1
BNZ Branch if not zero Z=0
BC Branch if carry C=1
BNC Branch if no carry C=0
BP Branch if plus S=0
BM Branch if minus S=1
BV Branch if overflow V=1
BNV Branch if no overflow V=0
99
9.Basic Input/Output
Operations
100
I/O
 The data on which the instructions operate are not
necessarily already stored in memory.
 Data need to be transferred between processor
and outside world (disk, keyboard, etc.)
 I/O operations are essential, the way they are
performed can have a significant effect on the
performance of the computer.
101
Program-Controlled I/O Example
 Read in character input from a keyboard and
produce character output on a display screen.
 Rate of data transfer (keyboard, display, processor)
 Difference in speed between processor and I/O device creates
the need for mechanisms to synchronize the transfer of data.
 A solution: on output, the processor sends the first character
and then waits for a signal from the display that the
character has been received. It then sends the second
character. Input is sent from the keyboard in a similar way.
102
Bus
Processor
DATAIN DATAOUT
SIN SOUT
- Registers
- Flags Keyboard Display
- Device interface
Figure 2.19 Bus connection for processor , keyboard, and displa. y
103
 Machine instructions that can check the state of
the status flags and transfer data: READWAIT
Branch to READWAIT if SIN = 0
Input from DATAIN to R1
WRITEWAIT Branch to WRITEWAIT if SOUT = 0

Output from R1 to DATAOUT
104
Program-Controlled I/O
Memory Mapped I/O I/O Mapped I/O

105
 Memory-Mapped I/O – some memory address values
are used to refer to peripheral device buffer registers.
No special instructions are needed. Also use device
status registers.
 E.g. Movebyte DATAIN,R1
 Movebyte R1,DTATOUT
 READWAIT Testbit #3, INSTATUS
Branch=0
READWAIT
MoveByte
DATAIN, R1
 WRITEWAIT Testbit #3, 106
OUTSTATUS
 Assumption – the initial state of SIN is 0 and the
initial state of SOUT is 1.
 Any drawback of this mechanism in terms of
efficiency?
 Two wait loopsprocessor execution time is wasted
 Alternate solution?
 Interrupt
107
10.Stacks
108
Stacks
 A stack is a list of data elements, usually words, with the
accessing restriction that elements can be added or removed at
one end of the list only. This end is called the top of the stack,
and the other end is called the bottom. The structure is
sometimes referred to as a pushdown stack.
 last-in–first-out (LIFO) stack working.
 The terms push and pop are used to describe placing a new
item on the stack and removing the top item from the stack,
respectively.
 The stack pointer, SP, is used to keep track of the address of the
element of the stack that is at the top at any given time.
109
Stack Organization
Current
Top of Stack
 LIFO TOS 0
Last In First Out 1
2
3
4
5
SP 6 0 1 2 3
7 0 0 5 5
FULL EMPTY 8 0 0 0 8
9 0 0 2 5
10 0 0 1 5
Stack Bottom
Stack
110
Stack Organization
Current 1 6 9
Top of Stack 0
 PUSH TOS 0
SP ← SP – 1 1
M[SP] ← DR 2
3
If (SP = 0) then (FULL ← 1) 4
EMPTY ← 0 5 1 6 9 0
SP 6 0 1 2 3
7 0 0 5 5
9 0 0 2 5
10 0 0 1 5
Stack Bottom
Stack
111
Stack Organization
Current
Top of Stack
 POP TOS 0
DR ← M[SP] 1
SP ← SP + 1 2
3
If (SP = 11) then (EMPTY ← 1) 4
FULL ← 0 5 1 6 9 0
SP 6 0 1 2 3
7 0 0 5 5
9 0 0 2 5
10 0 0 1 5
Stack Bottom
Stack
112
Stack Organization
 Memory Stack
 PUSH PC 0
1
SP ← SP – 1 2
M[SP] ← DR
 POP AR 100
101
DR ← M[SP]
102
SP ← SP + 1
200
SP 201
202
113
10.Queue
114
Queue
 FIFO basis
 Data are stored in and retrieved from a queue on a
first-in–first-out (FIFO) basis. Thus, if we assume
that the queue grows in the direction of increasing
addresses in the memory, new data are added at
the back (high-address end) and retrieved from
the front (low- address end) of the queue.
115
Differences between a stack and a
queue
 Queue
 Stack
 FIFO
 LIFO
 One end is to add
 One end is fixed other
item and other is to end for PUSH and POP
remove item item
 Two Pointer is used
 One pointer used
 Not fixed size
 Fixed Size
116
11.Subroutines
117
Subroutines
 In a given program, it is often necessary to perform a particular task
many times on different data values. It is prudent to implement this
task as a block of instructions that is executed each time the task has to
be performed. Such a block of instructions is usually called a
subroutine.
 However, to save space, only one copy of this block is placed in the
memory, and any program that requires the use of the subroutine
simply branches to its starting location.
 When a program branches to a subroutine we say that it is calling the
subroutine. The instruction that performs this branch operation is
named a Call instruction.
 After a subroutine has been executed, the calling program must resume
execution, continuing immediately after the instruction that called the
subroutine. The subroutine is said to return to the program that called
it, and it does so by executing a Return instruction.
118
Subroutines
 Since the subroutine may be called from different places in a calling
program, provision must be made for returning to the appropriate
location. The location where the calling program resumes execution is
the location pointed to by the updated program counter (PC) while the
Call instruction is being executed.
 Hence, the contents of the PC must be saved by the Call
instruction to enable correct return to the calling program.
 The way in which a computer makes it possible to call and return from
subroutines is referred to as its subroutine linkage method.
 The simplest subroutine linkage method is to save the return address in
a specific location, which may be a register dedicated to this function.
Such a register is called the link register. When the subroutine
completes its task, the Return instruction returns to the calling program
by branching indirectly through the link register.
119
Subroutines
 The Call instruction is just a special branch
instruction that performs the following
operations:
 Store the contents of the PC in the link register
 Branch to the target address specified by the Call
instruction
 The Return instruction is a special branch
instruction that performs the operation
 Branch to the address contained in the link register
120
Subroutines
121
Subroutine Nesting and the
Processor Stack
 A common programming practice, called subroutine
nesting, is to have one subroutine call another.
 In this case, the return address of the second call is also
stored in the link register, overwriting its previous
contents. Hence, it is essential to save the contents of the
link register in some other location before calling another
subroutine. Otherwise, the return address of the first
subroutine will be lost.
 That is, return addresses are generated and used in a last-
in–first-out order. This suggests that the return addresses
associated with subroutine calls should be pushed onto
the processor stack.
122
Parameter Passing
 When calling a subroutine, a program must provide to
the subroutine the parameters, that is, the operands or
their addresses, to be used in the computation. Later, the
subroutine returns other parameters, which are the results
of the computation. This exchange of information
between a calling program and a subroutine is referred to
as parameter passing.
 Parameter passing may be accomplished in several ways.
The parameters may be placed in registers, in memory
locations, or on the processor stack where they can be
accessed by the subroutine.
123
Program of subroutine
Parameters passed through registers.
 Calling Program  Subroutine
1. Move N, R1 1. LISTADD: Clear R0
2. Move #NUM1,R2 2. LOOP: Add (R2)+,R0
3. Call LISTADD 3. Decrement R1
4. Move R0,SUM 4. Branch>0 LOOP
5. Return
124
Parameter Passing by Value and by
Reference
 Instead of passing the actual Value(s), the calling
program passes the address of the Value(s). This
technique is called passing by reference.
 The second parameter is passed by value, that
is, the actual number of entries, is passed to the
subroutine.
125
Program of subroutine Parameters
passed on the stack.
 MoveMultiple R0-R2, -(SP)
 MoveMultiple to store contents of register R0
through R2 on he stack
126
Program of subroutine Parameters
passed on the stack.
127
The Stack Frame
 If the subroutine requires more space for local
memory variables, the space for these variables can
also be allocated on the stack this area of stack is
called Stack Frame.
 For e.g. during execution of the subroutine, six
locations at the top of the stack contain entries that
are needed by the subroutine. These locations
constitute a private work space for the subroutine,
allocated at the time the subroutine is entered and
deallocated when the subroutine returns control to
the calling program.
128
The Stack Frame
 Frame pointer (FP), for convenient
access to the parameters passed to the
subroutine and to the local memory
variables used by the subroutine.
 In the figure, we assume that four
parameters are passed to the
subroutine, three local variables are
used within the subroutine, and
registers R2, R3, and R4 need to be
saved because they will also be used
within the subroutine.
 When nested subroutines are used,
the stack frame of the calling
subroutine would also include the
return address, as we will see in the
example that follows.
129
Stack Frames for Nested Subroutines
130
12. Additional
Instructions
131
Logical Shifts
 Logical shift – shifting left (LShiftL) and shifting right
(LShiftR)
C R0 0
before: 0 0 1 1 1 0 . . . 0 1 1
after: 1 1 1 0 . . . 0 1 1 0 0
(a) Logical shift left LShiftL #2,R0
0 R0 C
before: 0 1 1 1 0 . . . 0 1 1 0
after: 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 . . . 0 1
(b) Logical shift r ight LShiftR #2,R0 139

Arithmetic Shifts
R0 C
before: 1 0 0 1 1 . . . 0 1 0 0
after: 1 1 1 0 0 . . . 0 1
1 1
AShiftR #2,R0
(c) Arithmetic shift right
140
C R0
Rotate
before: 0 0 1 1 1 0 . . . 0 1 1
after: 1 1 1 0 . . . 0 1 1 0 1
(a) Rotate left without carr y RotateL #2,R0
C R0
before: 0 0 1 1 1 0 . . . 0 1 1
after: 1 1 1 0 . . . 0 1 1 0 0
(b) Rotate left with carr y RotateLC #2,R0
R0 C
before: 0 1 1 1 0 . . . 0 1 1 0
after: 1 1 0 1 1 1 . . . 0 1
0
RotateR #2,R0
(c) Rotate r ight without carr y
R0 C
before: 0 1 1 1 0 . . . 0 1 1 0
after: 1 0 0 1 1 1 . . . 0 1
0
RotateRC #2,R0
(d) Rotate r ight with carr y 141
Figure 2.32. Rotate instructions.

Multiplication and Division
 Not very popular (especially division)
 Multiply Ri,
Rj Rj ← [Ri] х
[Rj]
 2n-bit product
case: high-
order half in
R(j+1)
 Divide Ri,
135
Rj Rj ← [Ri] /
Logic Instructions
 And R2, R3, R4
 And #Value, R4, R2
 And #$0FF, R2, R2,
136
Encoding of
Machine
Instructions
137
Encoding of Machine Instructions
 Assembly language program needs to be converted into machine
instructions. (ADD = 0100 in ARM instruction set)
 In the previous section, an assumption was made that all instructions are
one word in length.
 OP code: the type of operation to be performed and the type of operands
used may be specified using an encoded binary pattern
 Suppose 32-bit word length, 8-bit OP code (how many instructions can we
have?), 16 registers in total (how many bits?), 3-bit addressing mode
indicator.
 Add R1, R2 8 7 7 10
 Move 24(R0),
OP code Source Dest Other info
R5
 LshiftR #2, R0
 Move #$3A, (a) One-word instruction
R1
138
 What happens if we want to specify a memory
operand using the Absolute addressing mode?
 Move R2, LOC
 14-bit for LOC – insufficient
 Solution – use two words
OP code Source Dest Other info
Memory address/Immediate operand
(b) Two-word instruction
139
 Then what if an instruction in which two operands can be
specified using the Absolute addressing mode?
 Move LOC1, LOC2
 Solution – use two additional words
 This approach results in instructions of variable length.
Complex instructions can be implemented, closely
resembling operations in high-level programming
languages – Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
140
 If we insist that all instructions must fit into a single 32-
bit word, it is not possible to provide a 32-bit
address or a 32-bit immediate operand within the
instruction.
 It is still possible to define a highly functional instruction
set, which makes extensive use of the processor registers.
 Add R1, R2 ----- yes
 Add LOC, R2 ----- no
 Add (R3), R2 ----- yes
141
Contents- Part-B
INPUT/OUTPUT ORGANIZATION
• Accessing I/O Devices

• Interrupts
Interrupt Hardware,
Enabling and Disabling Interrupts,
Handling multiple devices,
Controlling device requests,
Exceptions,
Use of interrupts in OS
• Direct Memory Access
Bus Arbitration
• Buses Chapter
Synchronous and Asynchronous bus
8
• Interface Circuits
Parallel Port and Serial Port
• Standard I/O Interfaces –
PCI Bus, SCSI Bus, USB
Slides Courtesy of Carl Hamacher,”Computer Organization,” Fifth edition,McGrawHill

1. Accessing I/O devices
Processor Memory
Bus
I/O device 1 I/O device n
• Multiple I/O devices may be connected to the processor and the memory via a bus.
• Bus consists of three sets of lines to carry address, data and control signals.
• Each I/O device is assigned an unique address.
• To access an I/O device, the processor places the address on the address lines.
• The device recognizes the address, and responds to the control signals.
Accessing I/O devices (contd..)
⚫ I/O devices and the memory may share the same
address space:
⚫ Memory‐mapped I/O.
⚫ Any machine instruction that can access memory can be used to transfer data to or
from an I/O device.
⚫ Simpler software.
⚫ I/O devices and the memory may have different

address spaces:
⚫ Special instructions to transfer data to and from I/O devices.
⚫ I/O devices may have to deal with fewer address lines.
⚫ I/O address lines need not be physically separate from memory address lines.
⚫ In fact, address lines may be shared between I/O devices and memory, with a
control signal to indicate whether it is a memory address or an I/O address.
Address lines
Bus Data lines
Control lines
Address Control Data and I/O

decoder circuits status registers interface
Input device
• I/O device is connected to the bus using an I/O interface circuit which has:
‐ Address decoder, control circuit, and data and status registers.
• Address decoder decodes the address placed on the address lines thus enabling
the device to recognize its address.
• Data register holds the data being transferred to or from the processor.
• Status register holds information necessary for the operation of the I/O device.
• Data and status registers are connected to the data lines, and have unique
addresses.
• I/O interface circuit coordinates I/O transfers.
⚫ Recall that the rate of transfer to and from I/O
devices is slower than the speed of the processor.
This creates the need for mechanisms to
synchronize data transfers between them.
⚫ Program‐controlled I/O:
⚫ Processor repeatedly monitors a status flag to achieve the necessary
synchronization.
⚫ Processor polls the I/O device.
⚫ Two other mechanisms used for synchronizing
data transfers between the processor and
memory:
⚫ Interrupts.
⚫ Direct Memory Access.
2. Interrupts
• In program‐controlled I/O, when the processor
continuously monitors the status of the
device, it does not perform any useful tasks.
• An alternate approach would be for the I/O
device to alert the processor when it becomes
ready.
– Do so by sending a hardware signal called an interrupt to the processor.
– At least one of the bus control lines, called an interrupt‐request line is
dedicated for this purpose.
• Processor can perform other useful tasks

while it is waiting for the device to be ready.
Interrupts (contd..)
Program 1 Interrupt Service
routine
1
2
Interrupt
occurs i
here
i +1
• Processor is executing the instruction located at address i when an interrupt occurs.

• Routine executed in response to an interrupt request is called the interrupt‐service routine.
• When an interrupt occurs, control must be transferred to the interrupt service routine.
• But before transferring control, the current contents of the PC (i+1), must be saved in a known
location.
• This will enable the return‐from‐interrupt instruction to resume execution at i+1.
• Return address, or the contents of the PC are usually stored on the processor stack.
⚫ Treatment of an interrupt‐service routine is
very similar to that of a subroutine.
⚫ However there are significant differences:
⚫ A subroutine performs a task that is required by the calling program.
⚫ Interrupt‐service routine may not have anything in common with the program
it interrupts.
⚫ Interrupt‐service routine and the program that it interrupts may belong to
different users.
⚫ As a result, before branching to the interrupt‐service routine, not only the PC,
but other information such as condition code flags, and processor
registers used by both the interrupted program and the interrupt service
routine must be stored.
⚫ This will enable the interrupted program to resume execution upon return from
interrupt service routine.
⚫ Saving and restoring information can be done
automatically by the processor or explicitly by
program instructions.
⚫ Saving and restoring registers involves memory
transfers:
⚫ Increases the total execution time.
⚫ Increases the delay between the time an interrupt request is received, and the start
of execution of the interrupt‐service routine. This delay is called interrupt latency.
⚫ In order to reduce the interrupt latency, most
processors save only the minimal amount of
information:
⚫ This minimal amount of information includes Program Counter and processor status
registers.
⚫ Any additional information that must be saved,
must be saved explicitly by the program
• When a processor receives an interrupt‐
request, it must branch to the interrupt
service routine.
• It must also inform the device that it has
recognized the interrupt request.
• This can be accomplished in two ways:
– Some processors have an explicit interrupt‐acknowledge control signal for this
purpose.
– In other cases, the data transfer that takes place between the device and the
processor can be used to inform the device.
⚫ Interrupt‐requests interrupt the execution of a
program, and may alter the intended sequence
of events:
⚫ Sometimes such alterations may be undesirable, and must not be allowed.
⚫ For example, the processor may not want to be interrupted by the same device
while executing its interrupt‐service routine.
⚫ Processors generally provide the ability to

enable and disable such interruptions as
desired.
⚫ One simple way is to provide machine
instructions such as Interrupt-enable and
Interrupt-disable for this purpose.
⚫ To avoid interruption by the same device
⚫ Multiple I/O devices may be connected to the
processor and the memory via a bus. Some or
all of these devices may be capable of
generating interrupt requests.
⚫ Each device operates independently, and hence no definite order can be
imposed on how the devices generate interrupt requests?
⚫ How does the processor know which device

has generated an interrupt?
⚫ How does the processor know which interrupt
service routine needs to be executed?
⚫ When the processor is executing an interrupt
service routine for one device, can other
device interrupt the processor?
⚫ Consider a simple arrangement where all devices
send their interrupt‐requests over a single control
line in the bus.
⚫ When the processor receives an interrupt request
over this control line, how does it know which
device is requesting an interrupt?
⚫ This information is available in the status register
of the device requesting an interrupt:
⚫ The status register of each device has an IRQ bit which it sets to 1 when it
requests an interrupt.
⚫ Interrupt service routine can poll the I/O devices
connected to the bus. The first device with IRQ
equal to 1 is the one that is serviced.
⚫ Polling mechanism is easy, but time consuming
• The device requesting an interrupt may
identify itself directly to the processor.
– Device can do so by sending a special code (4 to 8 bits) the processor over the
bus.
– Code supplied by the device may represent a part of the starting address of
the interrupt‐service routine.
– The remainder of the starting address is obtained by the processor based on
other information such as the range of memory addresses where interrupt
service routines are located.
• Usually the location pointed to by the

interrupting device is used to store the
starting address of the interrupt‐service
routine.
⚫ Multiple I/O devices may be connected to the
processor and the memory via a bus. Some or
all of these devices may be capable of
generating interrupt requests.
⚫ Each device operates independently, and hence no definite order can be
imposed on how the devices generate interrupt requests?
⚫ How does the processor know which device

has generated an interrupt?
⚫ How does the processor know which interrupt
service routine needs to be executed?
⚫ When the processor is executing an interrupt
service routine for one device, can other
device interrupt the processor?
⚫ Consider a simple arrangement where all devices
send their interrupt‐requests over a single control
line in the bus.
⚫ When the processor receives an interrupt request
over this control line, how does it know which
device is requesting an interrupt?
⚫ This information is available in the status register
of the device requesting an interrupt:
⚫ The status register of each device has an IRQ bit which it sets to 1 when it
requests an interrupt.
⚫ Interrupt service routine can poll the I/O devices
connected to the bus. The first device with IRQ
equal to 1 is the one that is serviced.
⚫ Polling mechanism is easy, but time consuming
• The device requesting an interrupt may
identify itself directly to the processor.
– Device can do so by sending a special code (4 to 8 bits) the processor over the
bus.
– Code supplied by the device may represent a part of the starting address of
the interrupt‐service routine.
– The remainder of the starting address is obtained by the processor based on
other information such as the range of memory addresses where interrupt
service routines are located.
• Usually the location pointed to by the

interrupting device is used to store the
starting address of the interrupt‐service
routine.
⚫ Previously, before the processor started executing
the interrupt service routine for a device, it
disabled the interrupts from the device.
⚫ In general, same arrangement is used when
multiple devices can send interrupt requests to
the processor.
⚫ During the execution of an interrupt service routine of device, the processor
does not accept interrupt requests from any other device.
⚫ Since the interrupt service routines are usually short, the delay that this causes
is generally acceptable.
⚫ However, for certain devices this delay may not be

acceptable.
⚫ Which devices can be allowed to interrupt a processor when it is executing
an interrupt service routine of another device?
• I/O devices are organized in a priority
structure:
– An interrupt request from a high‐priority device is accepted while the
processor is executing the interrupt service routine of a low priority device.
• A priority level is assigned to a processor that

can be changed under program control.
– Priority level of a processor is the priority of the program that is currently
being executed.
– When the processor starts executing the interrupt service routine of a device,
its priority is raised to that of the device.
– If the device sending an interrupt request has a higher priority than the
processor, the processor accepts the interrupt request.
• Processor’s priority is encoded in a few bits of
the processor status register.
– Priority can be changed by instructions that write into the processor status
register.
– Usually, these are privileged instructions, or instructions that can be executed
only in the supervisor mode.
– Privileged instructions cannot be executed in the user mode.
– Prevents a user program from accidentally or intentionally changing the
priority of the processor.
• If there is an attempt to execute a privileged

instruction in the user mode, it causes a
special type of interrupt called as privilege
exception.
INTR1 I NTRp
Processor
Device 1 Device 2 Devicep
INTA1 INTA p
Priority arbitration
• Each device has a separate interrupt‐request and interrupt‐acknowledge line.

• Each interrupt‐request line is assigned a different priority level.
• Interrupt requests received over these lines are sent to a priority arbitration
circuit in the processor.
• If the interrupt request has a higher priority level than the priority of the
processor, then the request is accepted.
⚫ Which interrupt request does the processor
accept if it receives interrupt requests
from two or more devices simultaneously?.
⚫ If the I/O devices are organized in a priority
structure, the processor accepts the interrupt
request from a device with higher priority.
⚫ Each device has its own interrupt request and interrupt acknowledge line.
⚫ A different priority level is assigned to the interrupt request line of each
device.
⚫ However,if the devices share an interrupt

request line, then how does the
processor decide which interrupt request
Polling scheme:
• If the processor uses a polling mechanism to poll the status registers of I/O
devices to determine which device is requesting an interrupt.
• In this case the priority is determined by the order in which the devices are polled.
• The first device with status bit set to 1 is the device whose interrupt request
is accepted.
Daisy chain scheme:
I NTR
Processor
Device 1 Device 2 Device n

INTA
• Devices are connected to form a daisy chain.

• Devices share the interrupt‐request line, and interrupt‐acknowledge line is connected
to form a daisy chain.
• When devices raise an interrupt request, the interrupt‐request line is activated.
• The processor in response activates interrupt‐acknowledge.
• Received by device 1, if device 1 does not need service, it passes the signal to device 2.
• Device that is electrically closest to the processor has the highest priority.
• When I/O devices were organized into a priority structure, each device had its
own interrupt‐request and interrupt‐acknowledge line.
• When I/O devices were organized in a daisy chain fashion, the devices shared an
interrupt‐request line, and the interrupt‐acknowledge propagated through the devices.
• A combination of priority structure and daisy chain scheme can also used.
I NTR1
Device Device
INTA1
Processor
INTR p
Device Device
INTA
Priority arbitration p
circuit
• Devices are organized
into groups.
• Each group is assigned a
different priority level.
• All the devices within a single group share an interrupt‐request line, and are
connected to form a daisy chain.
⚫ Only those devices that are being used in a
program should be allowed to generate interrupt
requests.
⚫ To control which devices are allowed to generate
interrupt requests, the interface circuit of each
I/O device has an interrupt‐enable bit.
⚫ If the interrupt‐enable bit in the device interface is set to 1, then the device is
allowed to generate an interrupt‐request.
⚫ Interrupt‐enable bit in the device’s interface
circuit determines whether the device is allowed
to generate an interrupt request.
⚫ Interrupt‐enable bit in the processor status
register or the priority structure of the interrupts
determines whether a given interrupt will be
Exceptions
⚫ Interrupts caused by interrupt‐requests sent by
I/O devices.
⚫ Interrupts could be used in many other situations
where the execution of one program needs to be
suspended and execution of another program
needs to be started.
⚫ In general, the term exception is used to refer to
any event that causes an interruption.
⚫ Interrupt‐requests from I/O devices is one type of an exception.
⚫ Other types of exceptions are:

⚫ Recovery from errors
⚫ Debugging
Privilege exception
Exceptions (contd..)
⚫ Many sources of errors in a processor. For
example:
⚫ Error in the data stored.
⚫ Error during the execution of an instruction.
⚫ When such errors are detected, exception

processing is initiated.
⚫ Processor takes the same steps as in the case of I/O interrupt‐request.
⚫ It suspends the execution of the current program, and starts executing an
exception‐service routine.
⚫ Difference between handling I/O interrupt‐

request and handling exceptions due to
errors:
⚫ In case of I/O interrupt‐request, the processor usually completes the
execution of an instruction in progress before branching to the interrupt‐
• Debugger uses exceptions to provide
important features:
– Trace,
– Breakpoints.
• Trace mode:
– Exception occurs after the execution of every instruction.
– Debugging program is used as the exception‐service routine.
• Breakpoints:
– Exception occurs only at specific points selected by the user.
– Debugging program is used as the exception‐service routine.
• Certain instructions can be executed only
when the processor is in the supervisor mode.
These are called privileged instructions.
• If an attempt is made to execute a privileged
instruction in the user mode, a privilege
exception occurs.
• Privilege exception causes:
– Processor to switch to the supervisor mode,
– Execution of an appropriate exception‐servicing routine.
3. Direct Memory Access
Direct Memory Access (contd..)
⚫ Direct Memory Access (DMA):
⚫ A special control unit may be provided to transfer a block of data directly
between an I/O device and the main memory, without continuous intervention
by the processor.
⚫ Control unit which performs these transfers is

a part of the I/O device’s interface circuit.
This control unit is called as a DMA
controller.
⚫ DMA controller performs functions that would
be normally carried out by the processor:
⚫ For each word, it provides the memory address and all the control signals.
⚫ To transfer a block of data, it increments the memory addresses and keeps
track of the number of transfers.
Direct Memory Access
(contd..)
⚫ DMA controller can transfer a block of data from
an external device to the processor, without any
intervention from the processor.
⚫ However, the operation of the DMA controller must be under the control of a
program executed by the processor. That is, the processor must initiate the DMA
transfer.
⚫ To initiate the DMA transfer, the processor

informs the DMA controller of:
⚫ Starting address,
⚫ Number of words in the block.
⚫ Direction of transfer (I/O device to the memory, or memory to the I/O
device).
⚫ Once the DMA controller completes the DMA

transfer, it informs the processor by raising an
Main
Processor
memory
System bus
Disk/DMA DMA
Printer Keyboard
controller controller
Disk Disk Network

Interface
• DMA controller connects a high‐speed network to the computer bus.

• Disk controller, which controls two disks also has DMA capability. It provides
two DMA channels.
• It can perform two independent DMA operations, as if each disk has its own
DMA controller. The registers to store the memory address, word count and
status and control information are duplicated.
(contd..)
⚫ Processor and DMA controllers have to use the
bus in an interwoven fashion to access the
memory.
⚫ DMA devices are given higher priority than the processor to access the bus.
⚫ Among different DMA devices, high priority is given to high‐speed peripherals
such as a disk or a graphics display device.
⚫ Processor originates most memory access cycles

on the bus.
⚫ DMA controller can be said to “steal” memory access cycles from the bus. This
interweaving technique is called as “cycle stealing”.
⚫ An alternate approach is the provide a DMA

controller an exclusive capability to initiate
transfers on the bus, and hence exclusive access
Bus arbitration
⚫ Processor and DMA controllers both need to
initiate data transfers on the bus and access main
memory.
⚫ The device that is allowed to initiate transfers on
the bus at any given time is called the bus master.
⚫ When the current bus master relinquishes its
status as the bus master, another device can
acquire this status.
⚫ The process by which the next device to become the bus master is selected and
bus mastership is transferred to it is called bus arbitration.
⚫ Centralized arbitration:
⚫ A single bus arbiter performs the arbitration.
⚫ Distributed arbitration:
Centralized Bus Arbitration
B BSY
BR
Processor
DMA DMA
BG1 1 BG2 2
Centralized Bus Arbitration(cont.,)
• Bus arbiter may be the processor or a separate
unit connected to the bus.
• Normally, the processor is the bus master, unless it
grants bus membership to one of the DMA
controllers.
• DMA controller requests the control of the bus
by asserting the Bus Request (BR) line.
• In response, the processor activates the Bus‐Grant1
(BG1) line, indicating that the controller may use
the bus when it is free.
• BG1 signal is connected to all DMA controllers in a daisy
chain fashion.
• BBSY signal is 0, it indicates that the bus is busy. When
Centralized arbitration (contd..)
DMA controller 2
asserts the BR signal. Time
Processor asserts
BR
the BG1 signal
BG1 BG1 signal propagates

to DMA#2.
BG2
BBSY
Bus
master
Processor DMA controller 2 Processor
Processor relinquishes control

of the bus by setting BBSY to 1.
Distributed arbitration
⚫ All devices waiting to use the bus share the
responsibility of carrying out the arbitration
process.
⚫ Arbitration process does not depend on a central arbiter and hence distributed
arbitration has higher reliability.
⚫ Each device is assigned a 4‐bit ID number.
⚫ All the devices are connected using 5 lines, 4
arbitration lines to transmit the ID, and one line for
the Start‐Arbitration signal.
⚫ To request the bus a device:
⚫ Asserts the Start‐Arbitration signal.
⚫ Places its 4‐bit ID number on the arbitration lines.
⚫ The pattern that appears on the arbitration lines is
the logical‐OR of all the 4‐bit device IDs placed on
the arbitration lines
Distributed arbitration
Distributed arbitration(Contd.,)
• Arbitration process:
– Each device compares the pattern that appears on
the arbitration lines to its own ID, starting
with MSB.
– If it detects a difference, it transmits 0s on the
arbitration lines for that and all lower
bit positions.
– The pattern that appears on the arbitration lines is
the logical‐OR of all the 4‐bit device IDs
placed on the arbitration lines.
Distributed arbitration (contd..)
• Device A has the ID 5 and wants to request the bus:
‐ Transmits the pattern 0101 on the arbitration lines.
• Device B has the ID 6 and wants to request the bus:
‐ Transmits the pattern 0110 on the arbitration lines.
• Pattern that appears on the arbitration lines is the logical OR of the patterns:
‐ Pattern 0111 appears on the arbitration lines.
Arbitration process:
• Each device compares the pattern that appears on the arbitration lines to its
own ID, starting with MSB.
• If it detects a difference, it transmits 0s on the arbitration lines for that and all
lower bit positions.
• Device A compares its ID 5 with a pattern 0101 to pattern 0111.
• It detects a difference at bit position 0, as a result, it transmits a pattern 0100 on
the arbitration lines.
• The pattern that appears on the arbitration lines is the logical‐OR of 0100 and
0110, which is 0110.
• This pattern is the same as the device ID of B, and hence B has won the arbitration.
4. Buses
Buses
• Processor, main memory, and I/O devices are
interconnected by means of a bus.
• Bus provides a communication path for the
transfer of data.
– Bus also includes lines to support interrupts and arbitration.
• A bus protocol is the set of rules that govern

the behavior of various devices connected to
the bus, as to when to place information on
the bus, when to assert control signals, etc.
Buses (contd..)
⚫ Bus lines may be grouped into three types:
⚫ Data
⚫ Address
⚫ Control
⚫ Control signals specify:

⚫ Whether it is a read or a write operation.
⚫ Required size of the data, when several operand sizes (byte, word, long word)
are possible.
⚫ Timing information to indicate when the processor and I/O devices may place data
or receive data from the bus.
⚫ Schemes for timing of data transfers over a bus

can be classified into:
⚫ Synchronous,
⚫ Asynchronous.
Synchronous bus
Bus clock
Bus cycle
Synchronous bus (contd..)
Time
Bus clock
Address and
command
Data
t0 t1 t2
Bus cycle
Master places the
device address and Addressed slave places
command on the bus, data on the data lines Master “strobes” the data
and indicates that on the data lines into its
it is a Read operation. input buffer, for a Read
operation.
• In case of a Write operation, the master places the data on the bus along with
the address and commands at time t0.
• The slave strobes the data into its input buffer at time t2.
• Once the master places the device address
and command on the bus, it takes time for this
information to propagate to the devices:
– This time depends on the physical and electrical characteristics of the bus.
• Also, all the devices have to be given enough

time to decode the address and control
signals, so that the addressed slave can place
data on the bus.
• Width of the pulse t1 - t0 depends on:
– Maximum propagation delay between two devices connected to the bus.
– Time taken by all the devices to decode the address and control signals, so
• At the end of the clock cycle, at time t2, the
master strobes the data on the data lines into
its input buffer if it’s a Read operation.
– “Strobe” means to capture the values of the data and store them into a
buffer.
• When data are to be loaded into a storage

buffer register, the data should be available
for a period longer than the setup time of the
device.
• Width of the pulse t2 - t1 should be longer
than:
Time
Address & Bus clock
command Data reaches
Seen by
appear on the master the master.
tAM
bus. Address and
command
Data
Address & tDM
command reach
Seen by slave
the slave. tAS
Address and Data appears
command on the bus.
Data
tDS
t t 2
• Signals do not appear on the0 bus as soon as 1they are placed on the bus, due to
t
the propagation delay in the interface circuits.
• Signals reach the devices after a propagation delay which depends on
the characteristics of the bus.
• Data must remain on the bus for some time after t2 equal to the hold
time of the buffer.
• Data transfer has to be completed within one
clock cycle.
– Clock period t2 ‐ t0 must be such that the longest propagation delay on the
bus and the slowest device interface must be accommodated.
– Forces all the devices to operate at the speed of the slowest device.
• Processor just assumes that the data are

available at t2 in case of a Read operation or
are read by the device in case of a Write
operation.
– What if the device is actually failed, and never really responded?
• Most buses have control signals to represent a
response from the slave.
• Control signals serve two purposes:
– Inform the master that the slave has recognized the address, and is ready to
participate in a data transfer operation.
– Enable to adjust the duration of the data transfer operation based on the
speed of the participating slaves.
• High‐frequency bus clock is used:

– Data transfer spans several clock cycles instead of just one clock cycle as in the
earlier case.
Address & command Time
requesting a Read
operation appear on 1 2 3 4
the bus.
Clock
Address
Command
Master strobes data
into the input buffer.
Data
Slave-ready
Slave places the data on the bus, Clock changes are seen by all the
and asserts Slave-ready signal. devices at the same time.
Asynchronous bus
⚫ Data transfers on the bus is controlled by a
handshake between the master and the slave.
⚫ Common clock in the synchronous bus case is
replaced by two timing control lines:
⚫ Master‐ready,
⚫ Slave‐ready.
⚫ Master‐ready signal is asserted by the master to

indicate to the slave that it is ready to participate in
a data transfer.
⚫ Slave‐ready signal is asserted by the slave in
response to the master‐ready from the master,
and it indicates to the master that the slave is
ready to participate in a data transfer
Asynchronous bus (contd..)
• Data transfer using the handshake protocol:
– Master places the address and command information on the bus.
– Asserts the Master‐ready signal to indicate to the slaves that the address and
command information has been placed on the bus.
– All devices on the bus decode the address.
– Address slave performs the required operation, and informs the processor it
has done so by asserting the Slave‐ready signal.
– Master removes all the signals from the bus, once Slave‐ready is asserted.
– If the operation is a Read operation, Master also strobes the data into its input
buffer.
Asynchronous bus (contd..) Time
Address
and command
Master-ready
Slave-ready
Data
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
Bus cycle
t0 ‐ Master places the address and command information on the bus.
t1 ‐ Master asserts the Master‐ready signal. Master‐ready signal is asserted at t1 instead of t0
t2 ‐ Addressed slave places the data on the bus and asserts the Slave‐ready signal.
t3 ‐ Slave‐ready signal arrives at the master.
t4 ‐ Master removes the address and command information.
t5 ‐ Slave receives the transition of the Master‐ready signal from 1 to 0. It removes the data
and the Slave‐ready signal from the bus.
Asynchronous vs. Synchronous bus
• Advantages of asynchronous bus:

– Eliminates the need for synchronization between the sender and the receiver.
– Can accommodate varying delays automatically, using the Slave‐ready signal.
• Disadvantages of asynchronous bus:

– Data transfer rate with full handshake is limited by two‐round trip delays.
– Data transfers using a synchronous bus involves only one round trip delay, and
hence a synchronous bus can achieve faster rates.
5. Interface Circuits
Interface circuits
⚫ I/O interface consists of the circuitry required to
connect an I/O device to a computer bus.
⚫ Side of the interface which connects to the
computer has bus signals for:
⚫ Address,
⚫ Data
⚫ Control
⚫ Side of the interface which connects to the I/O
device has:
⚫ Datapath and associated controls to transfer data between the interface and the I/O
device.
⚫ This side is called as a “port”.
⚫ Ports can be classified into two:
⚫ Parallel port,
⚫ Serial port.
Interface circuits (contd..)
• Parallel port transfers data in the form of a
number of bits, normally 8 or 16 to or
from the device.
• Serial port transfers and receives data one bit
at a time.
• Processor communicates with the bus in the
same way, whether it is a parallel port or a
serial port.
– Conversion from the parallel to serial and vice versa takes place inside the
interface circuit.
Parallel port
Data
Address
DATAIN Data
Encoder and
R/ debouncing Keyboard
Processor SIN
W circuit switches
Maste-rready
Valid
Input
Slave-ready
interface
• Keyboard is connected to a processor using a parallel port.

• Processor is 32‐bits and uses memory‐mapped I/O and the asynchronous
bus protocol.
• On the processor side of the interface we have:
‐ Data lines.
‐ Address lines
‐ Control or R/W line.
‐ Master‐ready signal and
‐ Slave‐ready signal.
Parallel port (contd..)
Data
Address
DATAIN Data
Encoder and
R/ debouncing Keyboard
Processor SIN
W circuit switches
Maste-rready
Valid
Input
Slave-ready
interface
• On the keyboard side of the interface:

‐ Encoder circuit which generates a code for the key pressed.
‐ Debouncing circuit which eliminates the effect of a key bounce (a single key
stroke may appear as multiple events to a processor).
‐ Data lines contain the code for the key.
‐ Valid line changes from 0 to 1 when the key is pressed. This causes the code to
be loaded into DATAIN and SIN to be set to 1.
Input Interface Circuit
• Output lines of DATAIN are
are connected to the data lines of
the bus by means of 3 state drivers
• Drivers are turned on
when the processor issues a read
signal and the address selects this
register.
generated using a status flag circuit.

to line D0 of the processor bus
ate driver.
der selects the input interface based
gh A31.
rmines whether the status or data
read, when Master‐ready is
e processor activates the Slave‐ready

her the Read‐status or Read‐data
ich depends on line A0.
Parallel port (contd..)
Data
Address DATAOUT Data
Processor
CPU R/ SOUT Printer
Valid
W
Master-ready
Output Idle
Slave-ready interface
• Printer is connected to a processor using a parallel port.

• Processor is 32 bits, uses memory‐mapped I/O and asynchronous bus protocol.
• On the processor side:
‐ Data lines.
‐ Address lines
‐ Control or R/W line.
‐ Master‐ready signal and
‐ Slave‐ready signal.
Parallel port (contd…)
Data
Address DATAOUT Data
Processor
CPU R/ SOUT Printer
Valid
W
Master-ready
Output Idle
Slave-ready interface
• On the printer side:

‐ Idle signal line which the printer asserts when it is ready to accept a character.
This causes the SOUT flag to be set to 1.
‐ Processor places a new character into a DATAOUT register.
‐ Valid signal, asserted by the interface circuit when it places a new character
on the data lines.
Output Interface Circuit
Data lines of the processor bus
are connected to the DATAOUT
gister of the interface.
The status flag SOUT is connected
the data line D1 using a three‐state
driver.
The three‐state driver is turned on,
when the control Read‐status line is
Address decoder selects the output

interface using address lines A1
rough A31.
Address line A0 determines whether
e data is to be loaded into the
DATAOUT register or status flag is
be read.
If the Load‐data line is 1, then the
Valid line is set to 1.
If the Idle line is 1, then the status
ag SOUT is set to 1.
• Combined I/O interface circuit.
• Address bits A2 through A31, that is
30 bits are used to select the overall
interface.
• Address bits A1 through A0, that is, 2
bits select one of the three registers,
namely, DATAIN, DATAOUT, and
Handshake
control the status register.
• Status register contains the flags SIN and
SOUT in bits 0 and 1.
• Data lines PA0 through PA7 connect the
input device to the DATAIN register.
• DATAOUT register connects the data
lines on the processor bus to lines PB0
through PB7 which connect to the output
device.
• Separate input and output data lines for
connection to an I/O device.
D7 P7
• Data lines to I/O device are bidirectional.
DATAIN • Data lines P7 through P0 can be used for
D0 P0
both input, and output.
• In fact, some lines can be used for input
& some for output depending on the
pattern in the Data Direction Register
DATAOUT •(DDR).
Processor places an 8‐bit pattern into a DDR
• If a given bit position in the DDR is 1, the
corresponding data line acts as an output
line, otherwise it acts as an input line.
• C1 and C2 control the interaction
Data
Direction between the interface circuit and the I/O
Register
devices.
• Ready and Accept lines are the handshake
My-address
are
control
connected
lines ontothe
Master‐ready
processor bus
& Slave‐ready
side, and
RS2
• Input signal My‐address is connected to the
C1
RS1
Register Status output of an address decoder.
RS0 and
R/W
select control • Three register select lines that allow up to 8
Ready registers to be selected.
Accept C2
INTR
Serial port
• Serial port is used to connect the processor to
I/O devices that require transmission of data
one bit at a time.
• Serial port communicates in a bit‐serial
fashion on the device side and bit parallel
fashion on the bus side.
– Transformation between the parallel and serial formats is
achieved with shift
registers that have parallel access capability.
Input shift register Serial
input
• Input shift register accepts input one bit
at a time from the I/O device.
DATAIN • Once all the 8 bits are received, the
contents of the input shift register are
loaded in parallel into DATAIN register.
• Output data in the DATAOUT register
are loaded into the output shift register.
D7 • Bits are shifted out of the output shift
register and sent out to the I/O device on
D0
bit at a time.
• As soon as data from the input shift reg.
M y-address DATAOUT are loaded into DATAIN, it can start
RS1 accepting another 8 bits of data.
RS0
• Input shift register and DATAIN register
C
h
i Serialare both used at input so that the input
p Output shift register
a
n shift register can start receiving another
d
R/W set of 8 bits from the input device after
regist
loading the contents to DATAIN, before
Recevi ing clock
er
Status
the processor reads the contents of
I NTR
Ready
and
control ransmission clock DATAIN. This is called as double‐
T
selec buffering.
t
Acce
Serial port (contd..)
⚫ Serial interfaces require fewer wires, and hence serial
transmission is convenient for connecting devices
that are physically distant from the computer.
⚫ Speed of transmission of the data over a serial interface
is known as the “bit rate”.
⚫ Bit rate depends on the nature of the devices connected.
⚫ In order to accommodate devices with a range of
speeds, a serial interface must be able to use a range of
clock speeds.
⚫ Several standard serial interfaces have been developed:
⚫ Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) for low‐speed serial devices.
⚫ RS‐232‐C for connection to communication links.
Standard I/O interfaces
⚫ I/O device is connected to a computer using an
interface circuit.
⚫ Do we have to design a different interface for every
combination of an I/O device and a computer?
⚫ A practical approach is to develop standard interfaces
and protocols.
⚫ A personal computer has:
⚫ A motherboard which houses the processor chip, main memory and some I/O interfaces.
⚫ A few connectors into which additional interfaces can be plugged.
⚫ Processor bus is defined by the signals on the processor
chip.
⚫ Devices which require high‐speed connection to the processor are connected directly to this
bus.
Standard I/O interfaces
(contd..)
⚫ Because of electrical reasons only a few devices
can be connected directly to the processor bus.
⚫ Motherboard usually provides another bus that
can support more devices.
⚫ Processor bus and the other bus (called as expansion bus) are interconnected by
a circuit called “bridge”.
⚫ Devices connected to the expansion bus experience a small delay in data
transfers.
⚫ Design of a processor bus is closely tied to the
architecture of the processor.
⚫ No uniform standard can be defined.
⚫ Expansion bus however can have uniform
standard defined.
Standard I/O interfaces (contd..)
• A number of standards have been developed
for the expansion bus.
– Some have evolved by default.
– For example, IBM’s Industry Standard Architecture.
• Three widely used bus standards:

– PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)
– SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
– USB (Universal Serial Bus)
Standard I/O interfaces (contd..)
Main Bridge circuit translates
memory
signals and protocols from
processor bus to PCI bus.
Processor bus
Bridge
PCI bus
Expansion bus on
the motherboard
Ethernet USB ISA
memory controller Interface controller Interface
SCSI bus
IDE
disk
Video
CD-ROM
Disk 1 Disk 2 K eyboard Game

PCI Bus
⚫ Peripheral Component Interconnect
⚫ Introduced in 1992
⚫ Low‐cost bus
⚫ Processor independent
⚫ Plug‐and‐play capability
⚫ In today’s computers, most memory transfers involve a burst of data rather than
just one word. The PCI is designed primarily to support this mode of operation.
⚫ The bus supports three independent address spaces: memory, I/O, and
configuration.
⚫ we assumed that the master maintains the address information on the bus until
data transfer is completed. But, the address is needed only long enough for the
slave to be selected. Thus, the address is needed on the bus for one clock cycle
only, freeing the address lines to be used for sending data in subsequent clock
cycles. The result is a significant cost reduction.
⚫ A master is called an initiator in PCI terminology. The addressed device that
responds to read and write commands is called a target.
Data transfer signals on the PCI bus.
Name Function
CLK A 33-MHz or 66-MHz clock.
FRAME# Sent by the initiator to indicate the duration

of a transaction.
AD 32 address/data lines, which may be

optionally increased to 64.
C/BE# 4 command/byte-enable lines (8 for a 64-bit bus).
IRD Y#, TRD Y# Initiator-ready and Target-ready signals.
DEVSEL# A response from the device indicating that it

recognized its address and is ready has
transfer transaction. for a
data
IDSEL# Initialization Device Select.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
CLK
Frame#
AD Adress #1 #2 #3 #4
C/BE# Cmnd Byte enable
IRDY#
TRDY#
DEVSEL#
A read operation on the PCI bus

Device
Configuration
⚫ When an I/O device is connected to a computer, several actions are
needed to configure both the device and the software that communicates
with it.
⚫ PCI incorporates in each I/O device interface a small configuration ROM
memory that stores information about that device.
⚫ The configuration ROMs of all devices are accessible in the
configuration address space. The PCI initialization software reads these
ROMs and determines whether the device is a printer, a keyboard, an
Ethernet interface, or a disk controller. It can further learn bout various
device options and characteristics.
⚫ Devices are assigned addresses during the initialization process.
⚫ This means that during the bus configuration operation, devices cannot be
accessed based on their address, as they have not yet been assigned one.
⚫ Hence, the configuration address space uses a different mechanism. Each
device has an input signal called Initialization Device Select, IDSEL#
⚫ Electrical characteristics:
⚫ PCI bus has been defined for operation with either a 5 or 3.3 V power supply
SCSI Bus
⚫ The acronym SCSI stands for Small Computer System Interface.
⚫ It refers to a standard bus defined by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) under the designation X3.131 .
⚫ In the original specifications of the standard, devices such as disks
are connected to a computer via a 50‐wire cable, which can be
up to 25 meters in length and can transfer data at rates up to
5 megabytes/s.
⚫ The SCSI bus standard has undergone many revisions, and its data
transfer capability has increased very rapidly, almost doubling
every two years.
⚫ SCSI‐2 and SCSI‐3 have been defined, and each has several options.
⚫ Because of various options SCSI connector may have 50, 68 or 80
pins.
SCSI Bus (Contd.,)
⚫ Devices connected to the SCSI bus are not part of the address space of the processor
⚫ The SCSI bus is connected to the processor bus through a SCSI controller. This controller
uses DMA to transfer data packets from the main memory to the device, or vice versa.
⚫ A packet may contain a block of data, commands from the processor to the device, or
status information about the device.
⚫ A controller connected to a SCSI bus is one of two types – an initiator or a target.
⚫ An initiator has the ability to select a particular target and to send commands specifying
the operations to be performed. The disk controller operates as a target. It carries out
the commands it receives from the initiator.
⚫ The initiator establishes a logical connection with the intended target.
⚫ Once this connection has been established, it can be suspended and restored as needed
to transfer commands and bursts of data.
⚫ While a particular connection is suspended, other device can use the bus to transfer
information.
⚫ This ability to overlap data transfer requests is one of the key features of the SCSI bus
that leads to its high performance.
SCSI Bus (Contd.,)
• Data transfers on the SCSI bus are always
controlled by the target controller.
• To send a command to a target, an initiator
requests control of the bus and, after winning
arbitration, selects the controller it wants to
communicate with and hands control of the bus
over to it.
• Then the controller starts a data transfer
operation to receive a command from the
initiator.
SCSI Bus (Contd.,)
⚫ Assume that processor needs to read block of data from a disk drive and
that data are stored in disk sectors that are not contiguous.
⚫ The processor sends a command to the SCSI controller, which causes the
following sequence of events to take place:
1. The SCSI controller, acting as an initiator, contends for control of the bus.
2. When the initiator wins the arbitration process, it selects the target
controller and hands over control of the bus to it.
3. The target starts an output operation (from initiator to target); in response
to this, the initiator sends a command specifying the required read
operation.
4. The target, realizing that it first needs to perform a disk seek operation,
sends a message to the initiator indicating that it will temporarily suspend
the connection between them. Then it releases the bus.
5. The target controller sends a command to the disk drive to move the read
head to the first sector involved in the requested read operation. Then, it
reads the data stored in that sector and stores them in a data buffer.
When it is ready to begin transferring data to the initiator, the target
requests control of the bus. After it wins arbitration, it reselects the
initiator controller, thus restoring the suspended connection.
SCSI Bus (Contd.,)
6. The target transfers the contents of the data buffer to the initiator and
then suspends the connection again
7. The target controller sends a command to the disk drive to perform
another seek operation. Then, it transfers the contents of the second
disk sector to the initiator as before. At the end of this transfers, the
logical connection between the two controllers is terminated.
8. As the initiator controller receives the data, it stores them into the
main memory using the DMA approach.
9. The SCSI controller sends as interrupt to the processor to inform it
that the requested operation has been completed
Operation of SCSI bus from H/W point of
view
Category Name Function
Data – DB(0) to Datalines:Carry one byte of information

– DB(7) duringthe information transfer phase and
iden tify deviceduring arbitration,selection and
reselection phases
– DB(P) Paritybit for the data bus
Phase – BSY Busy: Asserted when the bus is notfree
– SEL Selection: Assertedduring selection and

reselection
Information – C/D
Control/Data: Asserted during transfer of
type control information (command,status or
message)
– MSG Message:indicates thatthe information being

transferred is a message
Table 4. The SCSI bus signals.

Table 4. The SCSI bus signals.(cont.)
Category Name Function
Handshake – REQ Request: Assertedby a targetto requesta data

transfercycle
– ACK Acknowledge: Assertedby the initiator when it

hascompleted adata transfer operation
Direction of – I/O Input/Output: Assertedto indicatean input

transfer
operation (relative to the initiator)
Other – ATN Attention: Asserted by an initiator when it

wishesto senda messageto a target
– RST Reset: Causesall device controls to disconnect

from the bus and assumetheir start-upstate
Main Phases involved
⚫ Arbitration
⚫ A controller requests the bus by asserting BSY and by asserting it’s
associated data line
⚫ When BSY becomes active, all controllers that are requesting bus
examine data lines
⚫ Selection
⚫ Controller that won arbitration selects target by asserting SEL and data
line of target. After that initiator releases BSY line.
⚫ Target responds by asserting BSY line
⚫ Target controller will have control on the bus from then
⚫ Information Transfer
⚫ Handshaking signals are used between initiator and target
⚫ At the end target releases BSY line
⚫ Reselection
Targets examine ID
DB 2
DB 5
DB 6
BSY
SEL
Free Arbitration Selection
Figure 42. Arbitration and selection on the SCSI bus.

Device 6 wins arbitration and selects device 2.
USB
⚫ Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard

developed through a collaborative effort of
several computer and communication companies,
including Compaq, Hewlett‐Packard, Intel, Lucent,
Microsoft, Nortel Networks, and Philips.
⚫ Speed
⚫Low‐speed(1.5 Mb/s)
⚫Full‐speed(12 Mb/s)
⚫High‐speed(480 Mb/s)
⚫ Port Limitation
⚫ Device Characteristics
⚫ Plug‐and‐play
Universal Serial Bus tree structure
Host computer
Root
hub
Hub Hub
Hub I/O I/O I/O I/O

device device device device
I/O I/O
device device
Universal Serial Bus tree structure
⚫ To accommodate a large number of devices that can be added or removed
at any time, the USB has the tree structure as shown in the figure.
⚫ Each node of the tree has a device called a hub, which acts as an
intermediate control point between the host and the I/O devices. At the
root of the tree, a root hub connects the entire tree to the host computer.
The leaves of the tree are the I/O devices being served (for example,
keyboard, Internet connection, speaker, or digital TV)
⚫ In normal operation, a hub copies a message that it receives from its
upstream connection to all its downstream ports. As a result, a message
sent by the host computer is broadcast to all I/O devices, but only the
addressed device will respond to that message. However, a message from
an I/O device is sent only upstream towards the root of the tree and is not
seen by other devices. Hence, the USB enables the host to communicate
with the I/O devices, but it does not enable these devices to communicate
with each other.
Addressing
⚫ When a USB is connected to a host computer, its root hub is attached to the processor
bus, where it appears as a single device. The host software communicates with
individual devices attached to the USB by sending packets of information, which the
root hub forwards to the appropriate device in the USB tree.
⚫ Each device on the USB, whether it is a hub or an I/O device, is assigned a 7‐bit address.
This address is local to the USB tree and is not related in any way to the addresses
used on the processor bus.
⚫ A hub may have any number of devices or other hubs connected to it, and addresses
are assigned arbitrarily. When a device is first connected to a hub, or when it is
powered on, it has the address 0. The hardware of the hub to which this device is
connected is capable of detecting that the device has been connected, and it records
this fact as part of its own status information. Periodically, the host polls each hub to
collect status information and learn about new devices that may have been added or
disconnected.
⚫ When the host is informed that a new device has been connected, it uses a sequence of
commands to send a reset signal on the corresponding hub port, read information from
the device about its capabilities, send configuration information to the device, and
assign the device a unique USB address. Once this sequence is completed the device
begins normal operation and responds only to the new address.
USB Protocols
⚫ All information transferred over the USB is organized in packets, where a
packet consists of one or more bytes of information. There are many types
of packets that perform a variety of control functions.
⚫ The information transferred on the USB can be divided into two broad
categories: control and data.
⚫ Control packets perform such tasks as addressing a device to initiate
data transfer, acknowledging that data have been received correctly, or
indicating an error.
⚫ Data packets carry information that is delivered to a device.
⚫ A packet consists of one or more fields containing different kinds of
information. The first field of any packet is called the packet identifier, PID,
which identifies the type of that packet.
⚫ They are transmitted twice. The first time they are sent with their true
values, and the second time with each bit complemented
⚫ The four PID bits identify one of 16 different packet types. Some control
packets, such as ACK (Acknowledge), consist only of the PID byte.
PID0 PID1 PID2 PID3 PID0 PID1 PID2 PID3
(a) Packet identifier field
Bits 8 7 4 5
Control packets used for
PID ADDR ENDP CRC16 controlling data transfer
operations are called token
packets.
(b) Token packet, IN or OUT
Bits 8 0 to 8192 16
PID DATA CRC16
(c) Data packet
Figure 45. USB packet format.

Host Hub I/O
Device
Token
Data0
ACK
Time
Token
Data0
ACK
Token
Data1
Figure: An output
transfer
ACK
Token
Data1
ACK
Isochronous Traffic on
USB
⚫ One of the key objectives of the USB is to support the transfer of
isochronous data.
⚫ Devices that generates or receives isochronous data require a time reference
to control the sampling process.
⚫ To provide this reference. Transmission over the USB is divided into frames of
equal length.
⚫ A frame is 1ms long for low‐and full‐speed data.
⚫ The root hub generates a Start of Frame control packet (SOF) precisely once
every 1 ms to mark the beginning of a new frame.
⚫ The arrival of an SOF packet at any device constitutes a regular clock signal
that the device can use for its own purposes.
⚫ To assist devices that may need longer periods of time, the SOF packet carries
an 11‐bit frame number.
⚫ Following each SOF packet, the host carries out input and output transfers for
isochronous devices.
⚫ This means that each device will have an opportunity for an input or output
transfer once every 1 ms.
Electrical Characteristics
⚫ The cables used for USB connections consist of four
wires.
⚫ Two are used to carry power, +5V and Ground.
⚫Thus, a hub or an I/O device may be powered directly from
the bus, or it may have its own external power connection.
⚫ The other two wires are used to carry data.
⚫ Different signaling schemes are used for different
speeds of transmission.
⚫At low speed, 1s and 0s are transmitted by sending a high
voltage state (5V) on one or the other o the two signal
wires. For high‐speed links, differential transmission is used.

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║JAI SRI GURUDEV║

Sri AdichunchanagiriShikshana Trust (R)

SJB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CO & ARM Microcontrollers

Memory locations and addresses, Memory operations, Instructions and Instruction

Input/Output Organization: Accessing I/O Devices, Interrupts – Interrupt Hardware,

Text Book 1: Chapter 4 – 4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7

4. Memory locations and addresses

Figure 1.1. Basic functional units of a computer.

 Control all activities inside the machine through a control unit

Fig. Connections between the processor and the memory.

Figure 1.5. The processor cache.

 Superscalar operation – multiple

Running tim e o n the

 32-bit word length example

(a) A signed integer

8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits

ASCII ASCII ASCII ASCII

(b) Four characters

 To retrieve information from memory, either for one

 It is impractical to assign distinct addresses to

 Address ordering of bytes

square brackets around the of the

1. PUSH ; TOS ← [A]

Figure 2.8. A program for C   + 

Conditional branch Branch>0 LOOP

Indirect (Ri ) EA = [Ri ]

Index X(R i ) EA = [Ri ] + X

Basewith index (Ri ,Rj ) EA = [Ri ] + [Rj ]

Relative X(PC) EA = [PC] + X

Autoincrement (Ri )+ EA = [Ri ] ;

Autodecrement  (Ri ) Decrement R i ; 70

 Indicate the memory ADD (A), R0

Offset is given as a Constant Offset is in the index register

 Indexed addressing used in accessing test marks from the

Could be Positive or X=2

Mnemonic Branch Condition Tested Condition

Figure 2.19 Bus connection for processor , keyboard, and displa. y

WRITEWAIT Branch to WRITEWAIT if SOUT = 0

Memory Mapped I/O I/O Mapped I/O

(a) Logical shift left LShiftL #2,R0

(b) Logical shift r ight LShiftR #2,R0 139

(a) Rotate left without carr y RotateL #2,R0

(b) Rotate left with carr y RotateLC #2,R0

Figure 2.32. Rotate instructions.

OP code Source Dest Other info

Memory address/Immediate operand

(b) Two-word instruction

• Accessing I/O Devices

Slides Courtesy of Carl Hamacher,”Computer Organization,” Fifth edition,McGrawHill

I/O device 1 I/O device n

⚫ I/O devices and the memory may have different

Address Control Data and I/O

• Processor can perform other useful tasks

• Processor is executing the instruction located at address i when an interrupt occurs.

⚫ Processors generally provide the ability to

⚫ How does the processor know which device

• Usually the location pointed to by the