Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan

BSPT, PP-DPT

Assistant Lecturer
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
Lecture # 02

Medical Physics
THE FORMATION OF
COMPOUND
 Compound; is substance formed by
union of two or more elements.
 The union taking place via the
electrons of the atoms involved to
form a molecule of a compound.
 Compound may be either
electrovalent or covalent
 Electrovalent Compound; occurs when
an atom of 1 element gives an electron
to the atom of other element.
 1st one become positive ion and 2nd
negative ion.
 These atoms are held together by
opposite electrical charges.
 Exmaple of electrovalent compound is
salt sodium chloride (Na+Cl-)
 Covalent compound; occurs where outer shells
of the atoms of element share a number of
common or bonding electron so in effect each
atom has a complete outer shell.
 E.g. carbon has 4 electron in its outer shell and
hydrogen has 1.
 the compound methane is formed by the a
combination of electrons contributed by both
carbon and hydrogen atoms and have complete
outer of carbon (8 electron ) and hydrogen (2
electron )
Conductor
 Conductors are element whose atoms
have few electron in their outer
orbits.
 copper has a loosely held single
electron in its outer orbits.
 In a copper wire or bar electron
easily drift away from parent atom.
 This conducting electron facilitate the
passage of current
Insulator
 are material whose atoms have few
electron in their outer orbits are
firmly held in their orbits.
 They do not leave the atom in order
to conduct a current
States of Matters
 Matter can be solid, liquid or gaseous.
 The molecules of a substance are usually at
least two forces
 Cohesive force, which attract the molecules
of substance to one another.
 Kinetic force, the force of the movement of
the molecules which is dependant on the
thermal energy contained by the mass of
molecule.
Solid
 In solid state there is a strong
cohesive force between the the
molecules.
 There shape remains constant.
 Kinetic energy only produces only a
vibration of the molecules about
mean position
Liquid
 If more energy (heat) is added to the solid the
kinetic energy increases.
 the movement of molecules eventually
becomes such that rigid structure collapses so
liquid state is reached.
 Molecules are in contact but move freely past
one another .
 Liquid thus maintain s its
volume takes on the shape of
its container.
Gas
 If even more heat is applied there comes a
point when the kinetic energy is so much
greater than the cohesive forces that the
molecules fly apart to form a gas.
 The molecules of gas continually colliding with
one another and with wall of container.
 So gas exert pressure.
 This pressure further
increases with any further
rise in temperature
Plasma

 A plasma is an ionized gas.

 A plasma is a very good conductor of electricity

and is affected by magnetic fields.

 Plasmas, like gases have an indefinite shape

and an indefinite volume.

 PHASE CHANGES

Description of Term for Phase Heat Movement During

Phase Change Change Phase Change

Vaporization,
Liquid to which includes Heat goes into the
gas boiling and liquid as it vaporizes.
evaporation
Heat leaves the gas
Gas to liquid Condensation
as it condenses.
Heat goes into the
Solid to gas Sublimation
solid as it sublimates.
 Latent Heat; is a specific amount of
energy which is required to change
the solid form of a particular
substance into liquid or liquid into
gas.
 Latent heat is energy absorb or
released for a change of state.
In case of water
 1 gram ice @ 0oC requires 336 joules of
energy to convert it to 1 gram of water
@ 0oC. (latent heat of fusion)
 1 gram of water @ 100oC requires 2268
joules of energy to convert it to 1 gram
of steam @ 100oC (latent heat of
vaporization)
 As matter changes from state of high
kinetic energy to one of lower kinetic
energy, this latent heat is released
 The concept of latent heat has
practical applications;
 Ice melting on the skin takes
considerable energy from skin, thus
cooling it.
 Whereas paraffin wax solidifying on the
skin gives out considerable heat to skin
thus warming it
Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan
BSPT, PP-DPT

Senior Lecturer
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
Lecture # 03

Medical Physics
Electrostatic field
 When two objects in each other's vicinity have
different electrical charges, an electrostatic
field exists between them.
 An electrostatic field also forms around any
single object that is electrically charged with
respect to its environment.
 An object is negatively charged (-) if it has an
excess of electrons relative to its surroundings.
 An object is positively charged (+) if it is
deficient in electrons with respect to its
surroundings.
 They show certain properties.
 The lines of force surrounding an isolated
charged body are straight.
 Line of force repel one another (as do like
charges)
 Line of forces pass through more easily
through conductor than through easily.
 Lines of force concentrate on that part of
surface of a charged body nearest to
another object over which they can exert an
influence.
 If two bodies with opposing charges are placed
opposite one another there is force of
attraction between them.
 If two similarly charge object are placed near
one another, they repel.
 If charged body is placed in contact with one
anther body (charge or un charge), then
electron flow between them until they are at
the same potential
 Charging by Friction
 it is possible to separate positive and negative
charges from each other.
 One way to do this is by rubbing two different
materials together, a process known as
charging by friction.
 Since the two objects are made of different
materials, their atoms will hold onto their
electrons with different strengths.
 As they pass over each other the electrons with
weaker bonds are “ripped” off of that material
and collect on the other material.
Example 1
 Rub a piece of ebonite (very hard, black rubber) across a
piece of animal fur. Explain what happens.
 The fur does not hold on to its electrons as strongly as
the ebonite.
 At least some of the electrons will be ripped off of the fur
and stay on the ebonite.
 Now the fur has a slightly positive charge (it lost some
electrons) and the ebonite is slightly negative (it gained
some electrons).
 remember the preservation of charge.
 No charges have been created or destroyed, just moved
around.
Example 2
 Rub a glass rod with a piece of silk. Explain
what happens.
 This is the same sort of situation as the one
above.
 In this case the silk holds onto the electrons
more strongly than the glass.
 Electrons are ripped off of the glass and go on
to the silk.
 The glass is now positive and the silk is
negative
 Charging by conduction

 Conduction just means that the two

objects will come into actual physical
contact with each other (this is why it is
sometimes called “charging by
contact”).
 Let's assume we have a negatively
charged metal object and an uncharged
metal sphere (Figure 2a).
 The uncharged sphere is on an
insulating stand so that it will not
interact with anything else.
 We bring the two objects close
together. We will see a separation of
charge happen in the neutral object
as negative electrons are repelled to
the right hand side (Figure 2b).
 At this time, they are not touching
and no charges have been
transferred.
 We allow the two objects to touch
(Figure 2c).
 Some of the negative charge will
transfer over to the uncharged metal
object.
 This happens since the negative charges
on the first object are repelling each
other.
 By moving onto the second object they
spread away from each other.
 When the negative object is removed, it
will not be as negative as it was (Figure
2d).
 Both of the objects have some of the
negative charge… how much depends on
the size of the objects and the materials
they are made of.
 If they are the same size, made of the
same materials, then the charge will be
the same on both.
 Overall the total negative charge remains
constant.
 We started with six negative charges, and we
ended up with a total of six.
 Notice that this means a negative object
causes a negative charge on another object.
 What would happen if you used a positive rod
to touch the metal sphere?
 The same sort of thing, except that the neutral
object will transfer electrons to the positively
charged object.
 In any of these cases the results depend on if
the materials used are conductors or
insulators.
 in the examples all the materials have been
conductors, so the charges flow easily from one
to the other and spread out.
 If the materials used were insulators, only the
specific areas that actually touched would show
any change in charge.
 That's because the charges can't move through
the insulators easily.
Charging by Induction
 It is possible to charge a conductor
without coming into direct contact
with it.
 You do have to follow some special
procedures.
 The most important one is the use of
a grounding wire.
 A grounding wire is simply a conductor
that connects the object to the ground.
 Think of the earth as a huge reservoir of
charge… it can both gain or donate
electrons as needed.
 Depending on what the situation is,
either electrons will travel up the
grounding wire to the object being
charged, or travel down to the ground.
 Charging by induction is a more
complex process than conduction.
 Figure 3a: The metal sphere is on an
insulating stand. It also has a ground
wire attached to it
 Figure 3b: We bring a negative object
nearby.
 This will cause a separation of charge in
the sphere.
 If you think about it, those electrons
piled up at the edge want to get as far
away as possible, and
 since they are free to move they do just
that.
 They will travel down the ground wire.
 Figure 3c: This step is VERY important. Keeping
the negative object nearby we snip the ground
wire.
 Now there is no way for the electrons to travel
back up they wire to the sphere.
 If we had skipped this step and just moved the
negative object away without snipping the
ground wire, the negative charges would have
just gone back up the wire onto the sphere and
it would be neutral again.
 Figure 3d: We remove the negative
object… now the sphere has a net
positive charge
 The same sort of thing happens if you bring a
positively charged object near to a grounded
sphere.
 In that case, electrons would come up the
grounding wire to be closer to the object. This
would leave the sphere with a negative charge.
 Notice that when you charge by induction you
get the opposite charge on the metal sphere.
Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan
BSPT, PP-DPT

Senior Lecturer
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
Lecture # 04

Medical Physics
Electrostatic field
 When two objects in each other's vicinity have
different electrical charges, an electrostatic
field exists between them.
 An electrostatic field also forms around any
single object that is electrically charged with
respect to its environment.
 An object is negatively charged (-) if it has an
excess of electrons relative to its surroundings.
 An object is positively charged (+) if it is
deficient in electrons with respect to its
surroundings.
 They show certain properties.
 The lines of force surrounding an isolated
charged body are straight.
 Line of force repel one another (as do like
charges)
 Line of forces pass through more easily
through conductor than through insulator`.
 Lines of force concentrate on that part of
surface of a charged body nearest to
another object over which they can exert an
influence.
 If two bodies with opposing charges are placed
opposite one another there is force of
attraction between them.
 If two similarly charge object are placed near
one another, they repel.
 If charged body is placed in contact with one
anther body (charge or un charge), then
electron flow between them until they are at
the same potential
Gold Leaf Electroscope
 The electroscope is used to detect
and test of small quantities of an
electric charge.
 It is constructed from a metal disc
connected to two thin leaves of gold
foil suspended from an electrode, and
 enclosed in a glass envelope to
protect them from draughts, and the
envelope may be evacuated to
minimize charge leakage
 When the electrode is charged by
induction or by contact, the leaves
acquire similar electric charges and
repel each other.
 Their separation is a direct indication
of the net charge stored on them.
 the electroscope is an instrument for
detecting the presence of static
electricity (charges).
 Figure 5a: In this situation a negative
object is brought nearby the
electroscope.
 This causes free moving electrons in
the electroscope to move down into
the leaves.
 Since the leaves both have negative
charge they repel each other and
move apart.
 Figure 5b: Bring a positive object
nearby and the free electrons in the
electroscope all start moving up
towards the top.
 This means the bottom has a net
positive charge.
 The leaves will spread apart again.
 Figure 5c: Touch the electroscope
with any charged object and you’ll
give it an overall charge by
conduction.
 The leaves will stay spread apart
even if you remove the object.
Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan
BSPT, PP-DPT

Assistant Professor
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
Lecture # 05

Medical Physics
 THE CAPACITOR
 The capacitor is device for storing an
electric charge (Condenser).
 In its simplest form it consist of 2
metal plates separated by insulator
called the dielectric.
 If the plates are given opposite
electric charges, the line of force
concentrate between the plates.
 The electric field between the plates has
an effect on the atoms of the dielectric.
 The electric field cause their electron
orbits to distort as they attached toward
the positive plate.
 The atom remain in this state of tension
until potential difference across the
capacitor is remove, when energy is
released.
Capacitance Of Capacitor

 Capacitance is the ability to hold an

electric charge.
 It is measured in farads.
 For practical purpose microfarad is
used (10-6)
 The potential difference developed
between the plates of the capacitor
depends upon its capacitance and
amount of electricity with which it is
recharged.
 The relation between potential (in volts)
and charge (in columb) is direct one.
 i.e. more electrons results in greater
potential.
 If the capacitor has a large capacitance
(ability to hold charge) than for a given
quantity of electrons only a relatively
small potential difference will be
developed.
 Thus the relationship between the
capacitance and potential is inverse.
Factor Affecting The Capacitance

 The capacitance of capacitor is

affected by some factors are as
follow;
1. The size of plates.
2. The material of the plate.
3. The width of the dielectric.
4. The material of the dielectric.
 Types of Capacitors
 There are two types of capacitors
 Fixed capacitor
 Variable capacitor.
Fixed Capacitor
 A fixed capacitor is constructed in
such manner that it possesses a fixed
value of capacitance which cannot be
adjusted.
 A fixed capacitor is classified
according to the type of material used
as its dielectric, such as paper, oil,
mica.
 A PAPER CAPACITOR is made of flat thin strips
of metal foil conductors that are separated by
waxed paper (the dielectric material).
 Paper capacitors usually range in value from
about 300 picofarads to about 4 microfarads.
 The working voltage of a paper capacitor rarely
exceeds 600 volts.
 Paper capacitors are sealed with wax to
prevent the harmful effects of moisture and to
prevent corrosion and leakage.
 Many different kinds of outer covering
are used on paper capacitors, the
simplest being a tubular cardboard
covering.
 Some types of paper capacitors are
encased in very hard plastic.
 These types are very strong and can be
used over a much wider temperature
range than can the tubular cardboard
type.
 A MICA CAPACITOR is made of metal foil plates
that are separated by sheets of mica (the
dielectric).
 The whole assembly is encased in molded
plastic.
 Because the capacitor parts are molded into a
plastic case, corrosion and damage to the
plates and dielectric are prevented.
 In addition, the molded plastic case makes the
capacitor mechanically stronger.
 Various types of terminals are used
on mica capacitors to connect them
into circuits.
 These terminals are also molded into
the plastic case.
 Mica is an excellent dielectric and can
withstand a higher voltage than can a
paper dielectric of the same
thickness.
 Common values of mica capacitors
range from approximately 50
picofarads to 0.02 microfarad.
Variable Capacitor
 It consist of 2 sets of plate interleaving with
one another
 Constructed in such away that one set of plate
can be move relative to the other thus varying
the surface area of plates facing one another.
 When all the surface of both sets of plates are
interleave the capacitance 2 its maximum.
 As one set is withdrawn by turning a knob, the
capacitance is gradually reduced.
 Variable capacitor are found in radio sets and
short wave diathermy machines controlled by
the turning knob.
 Varying the capacitance allows a circuit to
tuned to match the frequency of another
oscillating circuit, thereby facilitating maximum
transfer of energy between the two circuit.
Electrical Field Of A Capacitor
 The electric field between the plates of a
charged capacitor consist of electric line of
force which tend to take a possible shortest
route between the plates.
 However they repel one another and pass more
easily through some material than through
others.
 So that they are rarely straight
Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan
BSPT, PP-DPT

Assisstant Profesoor
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
Lecture # 06

Medical Physics
Charging And
Discharging of A
Capacitor
 Charging Of A Capacitor
 an uncharged capacitor is shown connected to
a four-position switch.
 With the switch in position1
the circuit is open and no
voltage is applied to the
capacitor.
 Initially each plate of the
capacitor is a neutral body
and until a difference of
potential is impressed across
the capacitor, no electrostatic field can exist
between the plates.
 To CHARGE the capacitor, the switch must be
thrown to position 2, which
places the capacitor across
the terminals of the battery.
 Under the assumed perfect
conditions, the capacitor
would reach full charge
instantaneously.
 At the instant the switch is thrown to position 2
(fig. (B)), a displacement
of electrons occurs
simultaneously in all parts of
the circuit.
 This electron displacement is
directed away from the
negative terminal and toward
the positive terminal of the
source (the battery).
 At the instant the switch is closed, the positive terminal
of the battery extracts an electron
from the bottom conductor.
 The negative terminal of the battery
forces an electron into the top
conductor.
 At this same instant an electron is
forced into the top plate of the
capacitor and another is pulled from
the bottom plate.
 Thus, in every part of the circuit a
clockwise DISPLACEMENT of electrons occurs
simultaneously.
 As electrons accumulate on the top plate of the
capacitor and others depart from the bottom
plate, a difference of potential develops across
the capacitor.
 Each electron forced onto the top plate makes
that plate more negative, while each electron
removed from the bottom causes the bottom
plate to become more positive.
 Notice that the polarity of the voltage which
builds up across the capacitor is such as to
oppose the source voltage.
 The source voltage (EMF) forces current around
the circuit in a clockwise direction.
 The EMF developed across the capacitor,
however, has a tendency to force the current in
a counterclockwise direction, opposing the
source EMF.
 As the capacitor continues to charge,
the voltage across the capacitor rises
until it is equal to the source voltage.
 Once the capacitor voltage equals the
source voltage, the two voltages
balance one another and current
ceases to flow in the circuit.
 When a capacitor is fully charged and
the source voltage is equaled by the
counter electromotive force (CEMF)
across the capacitor, the electrostatic
field between the plates of the
capacitor is maximum.
 the electrostatic field is maximum the
energy stored in the dielectric is also
maximum.
If the switch is now opened
as shown in figure (A),the
electrons on the upper plate
are isolated.
The electrons on the top
plate are attracted to the
charged bottom plate.
Because the dielectric is an
insulator, the electrons can
not cross the dielectric to the
bottom plate.
The charges on
both plates will be
effectively trapped
by the electrostatic
field and the
capacitor will
remain charged
indefinitely.
Discharging Of A Capacitor
 To review briefly, when a capacitor is connected
across a voltage source, a surge of charging
current flows.
 This charging current develops a CEMF across
the capacitor which opposes the applied
voltage.
 When the capacitor is fully charged, the CEMF
is equal to the applied voltage and charging
current ceases.
 At full charge, the electrostatic field between
the plates is at maximum intensity and the
energy stored in the dielectric is maximum.
 If the charged capacitor is
disconnected from the source, the
charge will be retained for some
period of time.
 The length of time the charge is
retained depends on the amount of
leakage current present.
 Since electrical energy is stored in the
capacitor, a charged capacitor can act
as a source EMF.
To DISCHARGE a capacitor,
the charges on the two plates
must be neutralized.
This is accomplished by
providing a conducting path
between the two plates as
shown in figure (B).
With the switch in position (4)
the excess electrons on the
negative plate can flow to the
positive plate and neutralize
its charge.
When the capacitor is
discharged, the distorted
orbits of the electrons in the
dielectric return to their
normal positions and the
stored energy is returned to
the circuit.
It is important for you to note
that a capacitor does not
consume power.
The energy the capacitor
draws from the source is
recovered when the capacitor
is discharged.
Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan
BSPT, PP-DPT

Assistant Professor
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
Lecture # 07

Medical Physics
 THE CELL & BATTERIES
 A cell is a device that transforms chemical
energy into electrical energy.
 A battery is a group of two or more connected
cells.
 The simplest cell, known as either a galvanic
or voltaic cell,
 It consists of a piece of carbon (C) and a piece
of zinc (Zn) suspended in a jar that contains a
solution of water (H20) and sulfuric acid
(H2S04) called the electrolyte.
 The cell is the fundamental unit of the
battery.
 A simple cell consists of two electrodes
placed in a container that holds the
electrolyte.
 In some cells the container acts as one
of the electrodes and, in this case, is
acted upon by the electrolyte
Electrodes
 The electrodes are the conductors by which the
current leaves or returns to the electrolyte.
 In the simple cell, they are carbon and zinc
strips that are placed in the electrolyte;
 while in the dry cell they are the carbon rod in
the center and zinc container in which the cell
is assembled..
Electrolyte
 The electrolyte is the solution that acts upon
the electrodes.
 The electrolyte, which provides a path for
electron flow, may be a salt, an acid, or an
alkaline solution.
 In the simple galvanic cell, the electrolyte is in
a liquid form.
 In the dry cell, the electrolyte is a paste.
Container
 The container which may be
constructed of one of many different
materials provides a means of holding
(containing) the electrolyte.
 The container is also used to mount
the electrodes.
 In the voltaic cell the container must
be constructed of a material that will
not be acted upon by the electrolyte.
Primary and Secondary Cells and Batteries

 Batteries are either primary or secondary.

 Primary batteries can be used only once
because the chemical reactions that supply the
electrical current are irreversible.
 Secondary (or storage) batteries can be used,
charged, and reused.
 In these batteries, the chemical reactions that
supply electrical current are readily reversed so
that the battery is charged.
 Primary batteries are common since they are
cheap and easy to use.
 Familiar primary battery uses are in flashlights,
watches, toys, and radios.
 The most common use for secondary (storage)
batteries is for starting, lighting, and ignition
(SLI) in automobiles and engine-generator
sets.
 Other applications include uninterruptible
power supplies (UPSs) for emergency and
backup power, electric vehicles (traction),
telecommunications.
Wet Leclanche Cells
 This cell has a distinctive glass jar of
characteristic shape.
 The jar contained a saturated solution of
ammonium chloride in water; this is the
electrolyte.
 Into this dipped a zinc rod and a porous
ceramic container packed with a mixture of
powdered carbon and manganese dioxide.
 In the centre of the porous pot was a carbon
rod.
 The zinc electrode is the negative terminal, the
carbon rod the positive
 At the anode (negative electrode):
 Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-

 At the cathode (positive electrode):

 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2e- → Mn2O3(s) +
2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)

 Overall reaction:
 Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → Mn2O3(s) +
ZnCl2(aq) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
 Electrical energy is released by the chemical
reaction between the zinc and the ammonium
chloride,
 the zinc gradually dissolving in the electrolyte
as soluble zinc chloride is formed; gaseous
ammonia is also released.
 manganese dioxide reacts with hydrogen
formed near the carbon electrode, removing it
as water.
 Powdered carbon was mixed with the
manganese dioxide to make a relatively
conducting mixture.
 Wet Leclanche cells were popular
because they suffered relatively little
from local action, and could be
replenished easily and cheaply when
exhausted.
 The zinc rod would eventually corrode
away, but could be replaced, and the
old electrolyte simply poured out and
replaced by new as required.
Dry Leclanche Cell
 In 1920 Herbert describes dry Leclanche cells
thus: 'All cells consist of a zinc vessel from 13
1/2 to 22 mm in thickness with a carbon plate
or rod.
 The carbon is either insulated by a layer of
paper or given a half-inch clearance from the
bottom of the zinc vessel.
 The general composition of the two pastes is:
(black paste) - 10lbs each of MnO2 and carbon
or graphite or both, (white paste) –
 NH4Cl, ZnCl2, and sufficient water to give the
proper amount of electrolyte to the cell
 Dry Leclanché cells offer several advantages
over wet cells, including:
1. Reduced risk of leakage: The absence of
liquid electrolyte minimizes the risk of leakage,
making dry cells more suitable for portable and
consumer devices.
2. Longer shelf life: Dry cells have a longer shelf
life compared to wet cells because the solid or
gel electrolyte is less prone to evaporation or
leakage.
 Maintenance-free: Dry cells do not
require periodic maintenance, such as
topping up electrolyte levels, unlike
wet cells.
 Improved safety: The solid or gel
electrolyte reduces the risk of spills
and corrosive damage.
 Dry Leclanché cells have been widely
used in various applications, including
flashlights, toys,
 remote controls, and other
portable electronic devices. They
are known for their reliability, low
cost, and ease of use. However,
they do have limitations in terms
of energy density compared to
more modern battery
technologies like lithium-ion
batteries
 Dr Hassaan Bin Adil
-DPT, CHPE , MPHILL MSK **

COMBINED MILLITARY MEDICAL

AND DENTAL COLLEGE
Lecture # 08

Medical Physics
 Cells in Series and Parallel
Connections

 Groups of cells can be connected in

series and parallel.
 Two or more electrochemical cells
connected together form a battery.
 The EMF of a battery depends on the
EMF of the individual cells and the
way in which they are connected.
 Cells or batteries connected in
series have the positive terminal of
one cell or battery connected to the
negative terminal of another cell or
battery.
 This has the effect of increasing the
overall voltage but the overall
current capacity remains the same.
 For example, the 8-V lead-acid
automobile battery contains 4 cells
connected in series with each cell
having a potential difference of about
2 V.
 Cells or batteries connected in
parallel have their like terminals
connected together.
 The overall voltage remains the same
but the current capacity is
increased.
 For example, if two 12-V automotive
batteries were connected in parallel,
 the overall voltage for the batteries
would still be 12 V.
 However, the connected batteries
would have twice the current capacity
of a single 12-V battery.
 Thermal Effects Of Current
 In 1860, Joule conducted a series of
experiments and gave the relation
between work done (W) and heat (Q)
produced.
 therefore the heat developed due to
conversion of any form of work or
energy is called ‘Joule Heat’.
 Thus in a resistor, electric current
causes heating effect.
 When a potential difference is applied between
the ends of a metallic conductor, the free
electrons gain energy and begin to drift.
 In the process, they collide with the ion-core of
the conductor and transfer energy.
 Then, the ions begin to vibrate with increased
amplitude.
 This results in the increase of temperature of
the conductor which transmits heat to the
surroundings.
 This is called the heating effect of electric
current.
Factors governing heating effects of
electric current

 The quantity of heat produced by a

current in a given time is directly
proportional to the resistance.
 The quantity of heat produced by a
current in a resistance is directly
proportional to the time for which
current flows through it.
 The quantity of heat produced by a
current in a resistance is directly
proportional to the square of the
magnitude of the current
 Vacuum tube
 Vacuum tube is an electronic device in which
the flow of electron is through vacuum.
 This electronic device was first introduce in
twentieth century.
 These vacuum tubes have been finding wide
application in radio, long distanced telephone,
television radar , Short wave diathermy &
micro wave diathermy
 Even though vacuum tubes replaced by semi
conductors they are still used at many places in
the electronics circuit.
 A vacuum tube usually contain a cathode which
is the electron emitter an Also called plate
which is the electron collector and one of more
electrode called grids for controlling the flow of
electrons between Cathode and plate.
 These electrodes are house in a highly
evacuated glass envelope.
 The plate is held at positive potential with
cathode so that emitted electrons are attracted
to plate to provide current in vacuum.
 The ability of vacuum tube to conduct current
in vacuum enable them to perform different
function
Diode Valve
 A diode consist of an evacuated glass
tube into which are sealed 2
separated electrodes.
 The cathode or filament is
constructed,
 so current flows through vacuum, charge
of electrons develops around it, as a
result of thermal effect of current.
 The anode or plate, is other electrode.
 it attract electrons across the valve.
 Electron can pass only from cathode to anode,
as there is no space charge around the anode.
 Consequently in order to reduce time lag prior
to thermionic emission taking place , the
cathode or filament may be heated by a
separated heating circuit or coated with
thorium oxide which releases electron @ very
low temperature
Triode valve
 The triode valve work on exactly the same
principle as the diode valve but has a 3rd
electrode (grid), place between the cathode &
anode.
 It is possible, using external circuit , to make
the grid positive or neutral .
 If neutral, will not affect the electron flow
across the valve.
 If positive, it will attract electron from cathode
thus increase the electron flow through valve
 If negative, the grid will repel
electrons, reduce or even stop the
electron flow
 In this case valve can act as switch or
regulator
 Dr Hassaan Bin Adil
-DPT, CHPE , MPHILL MSK **

COMBINED MILLITARY MEDICAL AND

DENTAL COLLEGE
Lecture # 09

Medical Physics
THE STATIC TRANSFORMER

 The electrical transformer work on

the principal of electromagnetic
induction and is use to alter the
voltage or to make a current earth
free.
Construction

 The transformer is consist of 2 coils of

insulated wires wound onto a
laminated soft iron frame.
 The coils may be wound on top of the
one another or on opposite sides
frame
Working

 An alternating current is passed

through the primary coil and this set
up a varying magnetic field which
cuts the secondary coil.
 By electromagnetic induction an EMF
induced into the secondary circuit.
Function Of The Transformer

 To alter the voltage of AC, the EMF induced in

the secondary coil is depend on the numbers of

turns of wire it has relative to primary coil;

1. If both primary and secondary coil have same

numbers of turns, then voltage will be same in

each of them.(even ratio transformer)

2. If secondary coil has less turns then the primary coil

then the EMF or voltage in the secondary coil will be

less then primary. (step down transformer).

 If the primary coil has 120 turns and applied

voltage is 100 volt and secondary has 60 turns then

voltage in the secondary step down to 50 volt.

3. If the secondary coil has more turns then primary

coil, the voltage developed in secondary coil will be

increased or step up. (step up transformer)

 E.g. in the primary coil still has 120 has turns, and

EMF of 100 volts, and the secondary coil has 240

turns then EMF developed in secondary coil will be

 It is important to note that the electrical power in both
primary and secondary coil is the same.
 Power is measured in watts (watts=volt x amps), so
the quantity watts must be the same for the primary
and secondary coils
 i.e. any change in the volt must be accompanied by
a change in current.
 E.g. in step down transformer, if the voltage is
halved in the secondary coil, the current must be
doubles
 For step up transformer, where the voltage is in the
secondary coil is doubled, the current is halved
 However the idealize situations which ignore the power
loss in the transformer
 Step up and step down transformers thus allow the
main voltage of 240v to be changed to an appropriate
level for different equipments
 To render a current earth free; main electricity
produced by dynamo and the consumer is supplied
with a wire @ high potential, called live wire and
 Wire @ 0 potential connected to earth, called the
neutral wire.
 Most electrical apparatus works on a current which
flows from live wire, through apparatus, to the neutral
wire and earth.
 If accidental connection is made between the live wire
and earth, current will flow along it.
 If this connection is made by a person, they would
then receive earth shock as current flowed through to
earth.
 The static transformer reduces this danger by using
electromagnetic induction to transfer the electrical
energy into the secondary coil where earth play no
role in the circuit.
 The effect on the secondary coil of the magnetic field
around the primary is cause electrons to move around
the secondary circuit, but not to leave it.
 Earth play no role in the secondary circuit because
even if an earth connection is made with it, electrons
will not leave the circuit but will continue to flow
around it.
 This is an important safety factor, and all currents
applied to patients are rendered earth free by using
static transformer.
 The Variable Transformr
 This consist of primary and secondary coil, but
is constructed so that one can of them can be
altered in length.
 The primary coil has a number of tappings
taken from it. And a movable contact can be
placed on any one of these by turning a knob.
 The effect of decreasing number of turns in
primary coil relative to secondary coil is to
cause a step up of voltage in the secondary
coil.
 In this way a very simple control of voltage is
obtained
 The Auto Transformer
 An auto transformer consist of a single coil of
wire with 4 contact points coming from it.
 when if it is used a step up transformer, CD is
the primary coil and AB the .
 Although the auto transformer work on
principal of electro magnetic induction, it has
the disadvantage that allow only a small
step up and does not render the current
earth free.
 It is found in the starter circuit of ultra
violet lamp
 Dr Hassaan Bin Adil
-DPT, CHPE , MPHILL MSK **

COMBINED MILLITARY MEDICAL

AND DENTAL COLLEGE
Lecture # 10

Medical Physics
 Molecular Theory Of
Magnetism
 The molecular theory of magnetism was given
by Weber and modified by Ewing. According to
this theory:
 Each and every molecule of a magnetic
substance is a complete magnet in itself,
having a north pole and a south pole of equal
strength.
 In an unmagnetized substance, the molecular
magnets are randomly oriented such that they
form closed chains.
 When the substance is magnetized, the molecular
magnets are realigned so that north poles of all
molecular magnets point in one direction and south
poles of all molecular magnets point in the opposite
direction.
 When all the molecular magnets are fully aligned, the
substance is said to be saturated with magnetism.
 During heating the magnetized specimen, molecular
magnets acquire some kinetic energy.
 Some of the molecules may get back to the closed
chain arrangement. That is why magnetism of the
specimen would reduce on heating.
 Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 Magnetic field; The region around a

magnet where the force of attraction
or repulsion can be detected is called
magnetic field.
 Field lines :-Magnetic field lines are
the paths around a magnet along
which the north pole of a magnetic
compass needle tends to move.
 The magnetic field lines around a magnet can
be observed by sprinkling iron filings around a
magnet. It can also be observed by moving a
magnetic compass around a magnet.
1. The magnetic field lines emerge at the north
pole and merge at the south pole.
2. The magnetic field lines are closer at the poles.
3. The magnetic field lines do not intersect each
other.
Magnetic field due to a current carrying
conductor
 If a magnetic compass is placed near a
conductor carrying current (wire), the needle is
deflected. This shows that a conductor carrying
current has a magnetic field around it.
 If the direction of the current is from north to
south, the deflection of the magnetic needle is
towards the east.
 If the direction of the current is from south to
north, the deflection of the needle is towards
the west.
 The magnetic field around a current
carrying straight conductor is in
concentric circles.
 It can be observed by passing a
current carrying straight conductor
through a cardboard and sprinkling
iron filings on it.
Right hand thumb rule :-
 The direction of the magnetic field around a
conductor is given by the Right Hand Thumb
Rule.
 It states that ‘ If a current carrying conductor
is held in the right hand such that the thumb
points in the direction of current, then the
fingers wrapped around the conductor shows
the direction of the magnetic
field ’.
Magnetic field due to a current through a
circular loop

 When current is passed through a circular

conductor (loop) the magnetic field produced is
in the form of concentric circles around the
conductor.
 Towards the centre the arcs of the circles
become larger and appears as straight line.
Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid
 A solenoid is a circular coil of wire in the shape
of a cylinder.
 When current flows through a solenoid, it
behaves like a bar magnet.
 The ends of the solenoid behaves like the North
and South poles of a magnet.
 The magnetic field produced by a solenoid is
similar to the magnetic field produced by a bar
magnet.
 The strength of the magnetic field depends
upon the strength of the current and the
number of turns of the coil.
Electromagnet
 A strong magnetic field inside a
solenoid can be used to magnetize a
piece of magnetic material like a soft
iron when placed inside the coil.
 If electric current is passed through a
wire wound around a piece of soft
iron, it behaves like a magnet. Such a
magnet is called an electromagnet.
 Force on a conductor carrying current in a
magnetic field

 A.M.Ampere suggested that if a

current carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field and
exerts a force on a magnet, then a
magnet should also exerts a force
on a current carrying conductor.
 Eg :- If an aluminium rod is suspended
horizontally by a wire between the poles of a
horse shoe magnet and current is passed
through the wire, then the aluminium rod is
displaced.
 If the direction of current is reversed, the
direction of displacement is also reversed.
 The force exerted is maximum if the conductor
is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

 The direction of force (motion) of a

current carrying conductor in a
magnetic field is given by Fleming’s
Left Hand Rule.
 It states that ‘ If we hold the thumb,
fore finger and middle finger of the
left hand perpendicular to each other
such that
 the fore finger points in the direction of
magnetic field,
 the middle finger points in the direction
of current,
 then the thumb shows the direction of
force (motion) of the conductor’.
 Dr Hassaan Bin Adil
-DPT, CHPE , MPHILL MSK **

COMBINED MILLITARY MEDICAL

AND DENTAL COLLEGE
Lecture # 11

Medical Physics
Moving coil meter
 A moving coil meter is a type of instrument
used to measure electric current. It
operates on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
 They are preferred for DC measurements due
to their accuracy, low power consumption, and
reliability.
 they are not suitable for measuring alternating
current (AC)
 Moving Coil Meter
 The main structure of a moving coil meter is a coil of

fine insulated copper wire which can rotate between a

N-pole and a S-pole of permanent magnet.

 When a small current passes through the coil, a force

whose direction can be predicted by the Flemings Left

Hand Rule will cause the coil to rotate.

 However the rotation is not "free".
 Two hair springs will produce an opposing torque to
stop the coil at some angle to its "zero" position.
 By careful design of the internal structure, such as
using a cylindrical soft-iron core, a pair of concave
pole pieces and a uniform air gap, the angular
displacement will be directly proportional to the
current passing through the coil
 The structure described so far is usually called a

moving coil meter.

 By adding resistors in series or in parallel with the

moving coil nmeter, the meter can be adapted to

measure large current or large voltage

respectively, i.e. acts as an ammeter or

 Voltmeter
 A voltmeter measures the change in voltage between
two points in an electric circuit.
 therefore must be connected in parallel with the
portion of the circuit on which the measurement is
made.
 It is necessary for the voltmeter to have a very high
resistance so that it does not have an appreciable
affect on the current or voltage associated with the
measured circuit.
 Ammeter
 An ammeter is an instrument for measuring the
electric current in amperes in a branch of an electric
circuit.
 It must be placed in series with the measured branch,
and must have very low resistance to avoid significant
alteration of the current it is to measure.
 an ammeter must have a low resistance, and
connecting an ammeter in parallel can damage the
meter.
 Electromagnetic Induction
a) Current can be induced to flow in a conductor if
it is moved through a magnetic field.
 the wire is moved downward through the
magnetic field between the two magnetic
poles.
 As it moves downward, cutting lines of force,
current is induced in it.
 The reason for this is that the lines of force
resist cutting, and tend to wrap around the
wire.
 With lines of force wrapping around
the wire, current is induced.
 The wire movement through the
magnetic field produces a magnetic
whirl around the wire, which
pushes the electrons along the wire
b) If the wire is held stationary and the magnetic
field is moved, the effect is the same;
 that is, current will be induced in the wire.
 All that is required is that there be relative
movement between the two
 so that lines of force are cut by the wire.
 It is this cutting or wrapping, of the lines of
force around the wire that produces the
current movement in the wire
c) The magnetic field can be moved by moving the
magnet or, if it is a magnetic field from an
electromagnet.
 it can be moved by starting and stopping the current
flow in the electromagnet.
 Suppose an electromagnet has a wire held close to it
When the electromagnet is connected to a battery,
current will start to flow through it.
 This current, as it starts to flow, builds up a magnetic
field.
 This magnetic field might be considered as expanding
and moving out from the electromagnet.
 As it moves outward, its lines of force will cut through
the wire held close to the electromagnet.
 This wire, therefore, will have current induced in it.
 The current will result from the lines of force cutting
across the wire.
 If the electromagnet is disconnected from the
battery, its magnetic field will collapse and
disappear.
 As this happens, the lines of force move inward
toward the electromagnet.
 Again, the wire held close to the electromagnet
will be cut by moving lines of force and will
have a current induced in it.
 This time, the lines of force are moving in the
opposite direction and the wire, therefore, will
have current induced in it in the opposite
direction
d) Thus it can be seen that current can be induced in the
wire by three methods:
1. the wire can be moved through the stationary
magnetic field;
2. the wire can be held stationary the magnet can be
moved so the field is carried past the wire;
3. the wire and electromagnet both can be held
stationary and the current turned on and off to cause
the magnetic field buildup and collapse,
 so the magnetic field moves one way or the other
across the wire
 Faraday’s Law
 Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of
wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the
coil. , which is proportional to the rate of change
of magnetic flux dtdΦ​

 No matter how the change is produced, the voltage

will be generated.
 The change could be produced by
 changing the magnetic field strength,
 moving a magnet toward or away from the coil,
 moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field,
 rotating the coil relative to the magnet, etc.
Lenz’s Law

 Which states
 “that the direction of the induced
EMF is such that it tends to
oppose the force producing it”
Mutual Induction
 Mutual induction is said to occur
when EMF is induced in an
adjacent conductor by the
magnetic field, setup around a
coil of wire carrying a varying
current
 When an alternating current (AC) flows
through the primary coil, it generates a
changing magnetic field around it. This
changing magnetic field induces an emf
in the secondary coil according to
Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. The induced emf in the
secondary coil then drives an alternating
current in the load circuit.
Self Induction
 Occurs within a coil carrying a varying
current.
 A magnetic field is generated around
each turn of wire.
 As the current increases the magnetic
lines of force move out , cutting
adjacent turn s of wire and thus
inducing EMF in them.
The self-induced emf in a
conductor is proportional to the
rate of change of current with
respect to time
Eddy Current
 Any conductor lying within a varying
magnetic field has an EMF induced in
it.
 If conductor is solid, the magnetic
lines off force passing through it
setup circular current call EDDY
current.
 These eddy current are @ right
angle to magnetic line of fore and
producing heating effect
 In most electrical apparatus eddy’s are
unwanted and prevented by laminating the
conductor
 i.e. cutting it into layers and insulating each
layer from others.
 However eddy currents can be used to
produce heating effect in patient tissue.
 Dr Hassaan Bin Adil
-DPT, CHPE , MPHILL MSK **

COMBINED MILLITARY MEDICAL

AND DENTAL COLLEGE
Lecture # 13

Medical Physics
 Generator

 A generator is a machine that

converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy by using the
principle of magnetic induction.
 This principle is explained as follows:
 Whenever a conductor is moved within a
magnetic field in such a way that the conductor
cuts across magnetic field, voltage is generated
in the conductor.
 The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on
1. the strength of the magnetic field,
2. the angle at which the conductor cuts the
magnetic field,
3. the speed at which the conductor is moved,
4. the length of the conductor within the magnetic
field.
 The POLARITY of the voltage depends
on the direction of the magnetic lines
of force and the direction of
movement of the conductor.
 To determine the direction of current
in a given situation, the LEFT-HAND
RULE FOR GENERATORS is used.
 Construction Of AC Generator
 An AC generator consists of a wire loop placed so that
it can be rotated in a stationary magnetic field.
 This will produce an induced EMF in the loop.
 Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an
external circuit load in order to pick up or use the
induced emf.
 The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the
magnetic field.
 The pole pieces are shaped and positioned as shown to
concentrate the magnetic field as close as possible to
the wire loop.
 The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called
the ARMATURE.
 The ends of the armature loop are connected to rings
called SLIP RINGS. They rotate with the armature.
 The brushes, usually made of carbon, with wires
attached to them, ride against the rings.
 The generated voltage appears across these brushes.
 The elementary generator produces a voltage
in the following manner.
 The armature loop is rotated in a clockwise
direction.
 The initial or starting point is position A.
(This will be considered the zero-degree
position.)
 At 0° the armature loop is perpendicular to
the magnetic field.
 The red & black conductor of the loop are moving
parallel to the field.
 So do not cut any magnetic field.
 Therefore, no EMF is induced in the conductors, and
the meter at position A indicates zero.
 This position is called the NEUTRAL PLANE.
 As the armature loop rotates from position A (0°) to
position B (90°), the conductors cut through more and
more lines of flux, at a continually increasing angle.
 At 90° they are cutting through a maximum number of
lines of flux and at maximum angle.
 The result is that between 0° and 90°, the
induced EMF in the conductors builds up from
zero to a maximum value.
 Observe that from 0° to 90°, the red conductor
cuts DOWN through the field.
 At the same time the black conductor cuts UP
through the field.
 the resultant voltage across the brushes (the
terminal voltage) is the sum of the two induced
voltages.
 The meter at position B reads maximum value.
 As the armature loop continues rotating from
90° (position B) to 180° (position C), the
conductors which were cutting through a
maximum number of lines of flux at position B
now cut through fewer lines.
 at position C they no longer cut through any
lines of flux.
 As the armature rotates from 90° to 180°, the
induced voltage will decrease to zero in the
same manner that it increased during the
rotation from 0° to 90°.
 The meter again reads zero.
 From 0° to 180° the conductors of the
armature loop have been moving in the same
direction through the magnetic field.
 Therefore, the polarity of the induced voltage
has remained the same.
 As the loop rotates beyond 180° (position C), through
270° (position D), and red to the initial or starting
point (position A), the direction of the cutting action of
the conductors through the magnetic field reverses.
 Now the red conductor cuts UP through the field while
the black conductor cuts DOWN through the field.
 As a result, the polarity of the induced voltage
reverses.
 the voltage will be in the direction opposite
from points A, B, and C.
 The terminal voltage will be the same as it was
from A to C except that the polarity is reversed
 The voltage output waveform for the complete
revolution of the loop
Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan
BSPT, PP-DPT

Assistant Professor
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
Lecture # 14

Medical Physics
 DC Generator
 A single-loop generator with each terminal
connected to a segment of a two-segment
metal ring.
 The two segments of the split metal ring are
insulated from each other.
 This forms a simple COMMUTATOR.
 The commutator in a dc generator replaces the
slip rings of the ac generator.
 This is the main difference in their
construction.
 The commutator mechanically reverses the
armature loop connections to the external
circuit.
 This occurs at the same instant that the
polarity of the voltage in the armature loop
reverses.
 Through this process the commutator changes
the generated ac voltage to a pulsating dc
voltage (known as commutation).
 Current flows through loop, out of the negative
brush, through the meter and the load, and
back through the positive brush to the loop.
 Voltage reaches its maximum value at point B
The generated voltage and the current fall to
zero at position C.
 At this instant each brush makes contact with
both segments of the commutator.
 As the armature loop rotates to position D, a
voltage is again induced in the loop.
 In this case, however, the voltage is of opposite
polarity.
 The voltages induced in the two sides of the
coil at position D are in the reverse direction to
that of the voltages shown at position B.
 However, because the segments of the
commutator have rotated with the loop and are
contacted by opposite brushes, the direction of
current flow through the brushes and the
meter remains the same as at position D.
 The voltage developed across the
brushes is pulsating and
unidirectional (in one direction only).
 It varies twice during each revolt
between zero and maximum.
 This variation is called RIPPLE.
 A pulsating voltage, such as that
produced in the preceding
description, is unsuitable for most
applications.
 Therefore, in practical generators
more armature loops (coils) and more
commutator segments are used to
produce an output voltage waveform
with less ripple.
 Dr Hassaan Bin Adil
-DPT, CHPE , MPHILL MSK **

COMBINED MILLITARY MEDICAL

AND DENTAL COLLEGE
 Semiconductor

 Semi conductor are usually metals

which because of thermal agitation or
addition of impurities have free
electron to conduct current
 Intrinsic semiconductor;
 Have small number of free electron @
room temperature, allowing it to behave
as a conductor e.g. Germanium
 Impurity semiconductors;
 Achieve the same characteristics by the
addition of very small quantity of some
other element. E.g. adding a few parts
per million of phosphorus to pure silicon.
 Impurity semiconductors are of two types
1. N type; in which electron are the moving
charge (negative charging, donor impurity)
2. P type; in which positive charge hole present
(acceptor impurity)
 It must be understood that n type and p type
SC have no charge until the battery or other
potential is applied.
 Current can pass only in the n type  p type
direction and therefore SC act as valve
Transistor

 A transistor is a semiconductor
device used to amplify or switch
electronic signals and electrical
power
 Transistor
 These are the semiconductor with
three terminals.
 They are modern equivalent of triode
valve.
 They are of two kinds
1. Junction transistor
2. Field effect transistor
Junction Transistor
 Two p-n junction transistor set
closely together so that the flow of
current across one junction affects
the current through the other.
 The two junction include three
separate pieces of doped
semiconductor and can be either a
 p-n-p and n-p-n transistor.
Field Effect Transistor
 The field effect transistor; consist of
narrow channel of one kind of doped
SC on to a small piece of opposite
type doped SC (mosfets).
 Regulating the charge carrier in the
channel.
 Used in amplifying circuit
 MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor): This type of FET uses a metal gate insulated
from the semiconductor material by a thin layer of oxide
(usually silicon dioxide). MOSFETs are commonly used in
integrated circuits (ICs) and are widely used in digital
and analog circuits.
 Rectification
 Rectification is the process by
which alternating current, usually
from the mains supply, is turned
into direct current.

 Alternating Current can be easily

converted to direct current using a
diode as a rectifier.
 Rectification
 two different rectification circuits, known as
'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers.
 Both use components called diodes to convert
AC into DC.
 diode is a device which only allows current to
flow through it in one direction.
 In this direction, the diode is said to be
'forward-biased'
 In the opposite direction, the diode is said to
be 'reverse-biased' and no current will flow
though it.
The Half-wave Rectifier
 The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of
rectifier since it only uses one diode.
 the AC input waveform to this circuit and the
resulting output.
 when the AC input is positive, the diode is
forward-biased and lets the current through.
 When the AC input is negative, the diode is
reverse-biased and the diode does not let any
current through, meaning the output is 0V.
 While the output of the half-wave
rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it
would not be suitable as a power
supply for a circuit.
 Firstly, the output voltage continually
varies between 0V and Vs, and
secondly, for half the time there is no
output at all.
The Full-wave Rectifier
 his time four diodes are arranged so that both
the positive and negative parts of the AC
waveform are converted to DC.
 When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B
are forward-biased, while diodes C and D are
reverse-biased.
 When the AC input is negative, the opposite is
true - diodes C and D are forward-biased, while
diodes A and B are reverse-biased.
 One disadvantage of the full-wave
rectifier is that there is a voltage loss
is half across the diodes.
 Because only two of the diodes are
passing current at any one time!
 While the full-wave rectifier is an
improvement on the half-wave
rectifier, its output still isn't suitable
as a power supply for most circuits
 Dr Hassaan Bin Adil
-DPT, CHPE , MPHILL MSK **

COMBINED MILLITARY MEDICAL

AND DENTAL COLLEGE
 Therapeutic currents

 The currents used for the treatment

purpose is called therapeutic
currents.
 According to the difference in
frequencies, the currents can be
divided into the following three types.
1. Low frequency currents

2. Medium frequency currents

3. High frequency currents

Low frequency currents:
 The current which has frequency
ranging from 1 – 1000 Hz is called
low frequency current.
Examples:
 Diadynamic Current, TENS, Direct
current, Faradic current
 Medium frequency currents
 The currents which have frequency
distribution ranging from 1000 –
10000 Hz are called medium
frequency currents.
Examples:
 Interferential therapy, Russian
current
High Frequency currents:
 The currents having frequency above
10000 Hz are called high frequency
currents.
Examples:
 Short Wave Diathermy, Microwave
Diathermy, Infrared Radiations,
Ultrasound.
Low Frequency Current
Faradic current;
 The faradic current is unevenly
alternating current with one phase of
high amplitude and short duration
and the other phase of low intensity
and longer duration.
 Faradic current has pulse duration of
1 ms with frequency of 50 Hz-1000
Hz
 The true faradic current is usually
obtained by using the an induction
coil, either using a cell battery or the
Main AC.
 An EMF of 3-6 volt is used.
 The true faradic current as obtained
through an induction coil is an
obsolete instrument now no longer
uses of this
 Now the Smart Bristow faradic coil
used in physiotherapy apparatus
 has a retractable iron core
 which is moved in and out of the coil
to change the strength of the pulses.
 Faradic type current; are interrupted direct
currents with pulse duration of 0.02 ms to 1
ms.
 They are unidirectional pulses.
 All faradic type currents must be surged to
produce a normal tetanic like contraction and
relaxation
 The most common comfortable pulse is 0.1 at
70 Hz
Direct Current;
 is an electric current that flows in one
direction for about 1 seconds or
longer.
 DC is also referred to as a
monophasic, unidirectional and
constant current.
 DC can be reversed, Interrupted and
surged
 Direct current parameters used in
physical therapy are
 EMF 40-60 V
 Amp 120 mA
 Polarity +ve & -ve
 DC can be obtained from a cell
battery (1.5 V 30-40 cells), DC mains
(resistance in series) and AC mains
(step Down transformer)
Diadynamic Current;
 Are also called Bernard's current after
the name of its discoverer.
 Actually is a monophasic pulsed
current usually are sine wave @
carrier frequency of 100 Hz.
 It is either full wave or half wave
rectified.
 This results in a monophasic pulse of
10 ms phase durartion.
 Its half wave pulse yield a rate of 50
pps with a 10 ms interpulse interval.
 The full wave rectification yield 100
pps leaving no interpulse interval
TENS;
 Is the application of a pulsed
rectangular wave current.
 This current is often generated by
small battery operated machines
 In which circuits modify the battery’s
output in such a way that it will have
stimulatory effect
 Many different types of TENS apparatus
are manufactured and so some
knowledge of parameters within which a
particular unit operates is required by
therapist
 Pulse shape rectangular
 Pulse with 50-300micro s.
 Frequency 2 Hz – 600Hz (150
commonly used, fixed or adjustable)
 Intensity 0 to 60ma (adjustable)
Lecture # 18

Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan

BSPT, PP-DPT

Senior Lecturer
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
 Medium Frequency Current
Interferential Current:
 Interferential currents are also known
as Nemec’s current who discovered it
 IFC intensity modulated AC obtained
by mixing two or three medium
frequency current, obtained from
independent circuits of AC to produce
low frequency effect.
+

 The main problem associated with the

direct application of faradic type current
to the patient is the very high skin
impedance.
 Medium frequency current of around
4000 Hz, while able to stimulate the
motor and sensory nerves, encounter a
much lower skin impedance.
 The impedance is inversely proportional
to frequency
 The resistance of the skin at 50 Hz is
in the region of 3200 ohm.
 Where as frequency of 4000 Hz skin
resistance is 40 ohm
 The principal upon which IFT is based
is that which produces the
interference effect where two medium
frequency current cross in the patient
tissue.
 One of the currents is kept @
constant frequency of 4000 Hz
 The other one can be varied between
3900-4000 Hz.
 An interference effect @ a “beat
frequency” equal to the difference in
frequency between the two currents,
is produced in the tisuue @ point
where the two currents cross.
 For example;
 Circuit A 4000 Hz
 Circuit B 3900 Hz
 Beat Frequency 100 Hz
 By varying the frequency of the 2 nd
circuit relative to the constant
frequency of the 1st, it is posible to
produce a range of beat frequencies
deep in the patient’s tissue.
 For example
 Circuit A 4000Hz
 Circuit B 3990Hz
 Beat Frequency 20 Hz
 A further sophistication of this
technique is to allow a frequency
swing in which rhythmical progression
is made through the full range of beat
frequencies.
 If rhythmical frequency range of 0-
100Hz is required this is achieved by
varying the frequency in the 2nd circuit
between 3900 and 4000 Hz over period
of 5-100 seconds.
 Variation in the interference frequencies
can be pre selected on the machine and
may be constant or rhythmic.
 A rhythmic mode indicates that the
frequency is swinging continuously
from the lower to the higher value
and back.
 On some units the frequency of the
two circuit is such that a beat
frequency of 150 Hz can be produced
and some would claim that this
frequency is useful in pain modulation
Russian Current;
 Attributed to Russian scientist Yadov
M Kots.
 It is defined as time modulated AC.
 A continuous sine wave output of
about 2500 Hz is modulated to yield
50 burst per second.
 Bursting AC is created when the
currents is allowed to flow for a few
ms and then not allow to flow for few
ms in repeated cycles.
Lecture # 19

Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan

BSPT, PP-DPT

Senior Lecturer
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
 High Frequency Current
Short Wave Diathermy
 A short wave diathermic current has a
frequency of between 107 and 108 Hz
and sets up radio waves with
wavelength of between 30 and 3 meter.
 The use of any current within this range
is classed as short wave diathermy.
 The commonly used for medical work
has a frequency of 27.12 MHz and setup
radio wave with a wave length of 11
meter.
 This current is generated in a machine
circuit, which in turn coupled to a
patient (resonator) circuit which is used
to treat the patient.
 Short wave diathermy provides as deep
a form of heat as any available to the
physiotherapist
The machine circuit;
 It is not possible to construct any
mechanical device which causes
sufficient rapid movement to produce
high frequency current.
 So this type of current is obtained by
discharging a condenser through an
inductance of low ohmic resistance.
 The basic oscillator circuit consist of
condenser and an inductance
 Current of different frequency are
obtained by selecting suitable
condensers and inductance.
 If a current of very high frequency is
required the capacitance and induction
are small
 While to produce lower frequency
current a larger condenser and/or
inductance are used
 In order to produce the high
frequency current, the condenser
must be made to charge and
discharge repeatedly
 To achive this the oscillator is
incorporated in a valve circuit.
The patient circuit;
 The circuit is coupled to the machine
circuit by inductors i.e. a matching high
frequency current is produced in
resonator circuit by electromagnetic
induction.
 For this to happen the oscillator and
resonator circuit must be in resonance
with each other, which requires that the
product of inductance and capacitance
must be the same for both circuits
 When short wave diathermy is applied
by the condenser field method, the
electrodes and the patient tissue form
capacitor.
 The capacitance of which depends on
the size of electrodes and on the
distance and material between them and
so different for each application.
 When cable electrodes are used it forms
an inductance the value of which varies
according to its arrangement
 Consequently either the capacitance or
the inductance of the patient’s circuit is
varied at each treatment, and a variable
capacitor is incorporated in the patient
circuit to compensate for this.
 When electrode have been adjusted
(tuning) until the product of the
inductance and capacitance of the
resonator circuit is equal to that in the
oscillator circuit
 When the oscillator and resonator circuits are
in tune with each other, there is maximum
power transfer to the patient circuit.
 Indication that is occurring are;
 An indicator light on the equipment either
comes on or changes color.
 An ammeter wired into the resonator circuit
shows maximum reading , which is
diminished by tuning the knob controlling
the variable capacitor
  A tube obtaining a small amount of neon gas
place with in the electric field between the
electrodes or the ends of the cable, will glow
at maximum intensity when the circuit are in
resonance.
 Some machine have an automatic tuning
(resonator) control.
 This automatically searches for and selects the
adjustment of variable capacitor to ensure
maximum power transfer to the patient circuit
Lecture # 20

Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan

BSPT, PP-DPT

Senior Lecturer
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
 High Frequency Current
Micro Wave Diathermy
 Is irradiation of the tissue with radiation
in the shorter wireless part of
electromagnetic spectrum I,e with wave
length between the IRR and SWD
radiation.
 There is some variation in definition but
waves of 1-100 cm may conveniently be
classified as microwaves.
 Radiation with wave length of 12.25 cm
and frequency of 2450 MHz is frequently
used
 Some use is made of radiation with
wave length of 69 cm and frequency of
433.92 MHz.
 The principal function of the application
of micro wave to the tissue is to produce
a local rise in temperature at point
where they are absorbed
Production of Micro wave;
 Wireless are produced by high
frequency current and have the same
frequency as currents which produce
them.
 The principles of production of the
currents are similar to those for other
high frequency currents
 But in order to obtain the necessary
very high frequency a special type of
valve call magnetron is used.
 As with other valves the magnetron
requires time to warm up so out put
is not obtained immediately the
apparatus is switch on.
 A stand by switch should be provided
for use.
 This enable the output circuit to be
disconnected without cutting off current to the
valve
 So that repeat heating and cooling of the valve
is avoided.
 Current must be carried from HF circuit by a
coaxial cable.
 a coaxial cable consists of a central wire with
an outer metal sheath run parallel to each
other throughout and from output and return
wires of the circuit.
 The coaxial cable carries the current
to a small aerial from which the
microwave are emitted.
 The aerial is mounted in a reflector,
which is packed with some material
which transmits the wave.
 The whole device is used to direct the
wave onto the tissue and may be
termed the emitter, director or
applicator.
 The patient does not form part of the
circuit, which is constructed in such a
way that no tuning Is necessary for
individual treatments.
 Micro wave energy is transmitted as free
space radiation and consequently needs
only this one emitter.
 However as with any pure
electromagnetic radiation microwave will
subject to reflection, refraction,
interference and absorption
 As with short wave diathermy,
microwave can interfere with radio
communications, so the generator must
be constructed so as to minimize the
interference.
 Only specified frequencies may be used
for medical work
 The frequencies of the 2459 MHz and
433.92 MHz (wavelength 12.25 and 69
cm respectively) are among those
permitted
Application of micro wave
 Various types of emmiters are
available
 Those most commonly used are
placed at distance from the body and
the waves pass through the
intervening air to reach the tissue.
 Emitters of this type may be circular
and rectangular in shape.
 The circular ones give beam of rays
which is circular in cross section and is
more dense at periphery then in centre.
 The rectangular emitter provides a beam
which is oval in cross section ad greater
density centrally.
 In both cases the rays given off from
emitter diverge, so that their density
become less as distance from emitter is
increases.
 Reduction in intensity of the beam is
also caused by absorption of the rays
 The distance from skin at which these
emitter are used depend on the
particular emitter, the output of
generator and structure to be treated.
 Commonly it is between 10 – 20 cm.
 Larger area required a greater distance
and greater distance required greater
out put from the emitter
 Small emitters are made for use in
contact with tissues and for the
treatment of cavities but they do not
appear t be effective as distant emitters.
 Recently an emitter with concave
surface which fits round the body has
been used with 69 cm waves it is
claimed that this gives a deeper effect
than other methods
Lecture # 21

Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan

BSPT, PP-DPT

Senior Lecturer
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
 SOUND
 sound, any disturbance that travels
through an elastic medium such as air,
ground, or water to be heard by the
human ear.
 When a body vibrates, or moves back
and forth, the oscillation causes a
periodic disturbance of the surrounding
air or other medium that radiates
outward in straight lines in the form of a
pressure wave.
 The effect these waves produce upon
the ear is perceived as sound.
 From the point of view of physics,
sound is considered to be the waves
of vibratory motion themselves,
whether or not they are heard by the
human ear.
 Generation of Sound Waves
 Sound waves are generated by any
vibrating body.
 For example, when a violin string vibrates
upon being pluck, its movement in one
direction pushes the molecules of the air
before it, crowding them together in its
path.
 When it moves back again past its original
position and on to the other side, it leaves
behind it a nearly empty space, i.e., a
space with relatively few molecules in it.
 In other words, the vibratory motion set up by the
violin string causes alternately in a given space a
crowding together of the molecules of air (a
condensation) and a thinning out of the molecules
(a rarefaction).
 Taken together a condensation and a rarefaction
make up a sound wave; such a wave is called
longitudinal, or compressional, because the
vibratory motion is forward and backward along
the direction that the wave is following.
 Because such a wave travels by disturbing the
particles of a material medium, sound waves
cannot travel through a vacuum.
Characteristics of Sound Waves
 Sounds are generally audible to the human ear
if their frequency (number of vibrations per
second) lies between 20 and 20,000 vibrations
per second (20 Hz-20 kHz), but the range
varies considerably with the individual.
 Sound waves with frequencies less than those
of audible waves are called infrasonic;
 those with frequencies above the audible range
are called ultrasonic
 A sound wave is usually represented
graphically by a wavy, horizontal line;
the upper part of the wave (the crest)
indicates a condensation and the
lower part (the trough) indicates a
rarefaction. This graph, however, is
merely a representation and is not an
actual picture of a wave.
 The length of a sound wave, or the
wavelength, is measured as the distance
from one point of greatest condensation
to the next following it or from any point
on one wave to the corresponding point
on the next in a train of waves.
 The wavelength depends upon the
velocity of sound in a given medium at a
given temperature and upon the
frequency of vibration.
 The wavelength of a sound can be
determined by dividing the numerical
value for the velocity of sound in the
given medium at the given temperature
by the frequency of vibration.
 For example, if the velocity of sound in
air is 1,130 ft per second and the
frequency of vibration is 256, then the
wave length is approximately 4.4 ft.
 The velocity of sound is not constant, however,
for it varies in different media and in the same
medium at different temperatures.
 For example, in air at 0°C. it is approximately
1,089 ft per second
 but at 20°C it is increased to about 1,130 ft
per second, or an increase of about 2 ft per
second for every centigrade degree rise in
temperature.
 Sound travels more slowly in gases than in
liquids, and more slowly in liquids than in
solids.
 Since the ability to conduct sound is dependent
on the density of the medium, solids are better
conductors than liquids, liquids are better
conductors than gases.
 Velocity of sound in some medium are;
 Air 344 ms-1
 Water 1410 ms-1
 Muscles 1540 ms-1
 Sound waves can be reflected, refracted (or
bent), and absorbed as light waves can be.
 The reflection of sound waves can result in an
echo
 A sound wave can be reinforced with waves
from a body having the same frequency of
vibration, but the combination of waves of
different frequencies of vibration may produce
“beats” or pulsations or may result in other
forms of interference.
Lecture # 22

Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan

BSPT, PP-DPT

Senior Lecturer
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
 Electric Shock
 A shock is painful stimulation of
sensory nerves caused by a sudden
flow, cessation or variation in the
current passing through the body.
 It can be caused by poorly designed
or badly serviced electro medical
apparatus.
Severity of Shock
 The greater the current which passes
through the body, the more severe is
the shock.
 In accordance with ohm’s law, the
magnitude of the current depend on the
EMF and the resistance.
 A high EMF is liable to produce a large
current, and so the EMF available for the
patient is limited to maximum likely to
be required for the treatment.
 Most apparatus used in physiotherapy
departments is plugged into the mains
supply of 240 volt and frequency 50Hz.
 This therefore represent the hazard of
electric shock.
 A high resistance reduces the intensity
of current (increased resistance of skin
lower the current passes through)
 The severity of shock is also depends on the
path taken by the current, and strong current
through the head, neck, heart or whole body
might prove fatal.
 Shock are also generally more severe with AC
than with DC.
 Because the intensity of AC is continually
changing and so it provide stronger sensory
stimulation.
 It may also produce tetanic muscular
contractions, which make it impossible for the
victim to let go of conductor
Effect Of Electric Shock
 Following a minor shock the victim may
be frightened and distressed, but
doesnot lose consciousness.
 After a more severe electric shock there
is a fall in blood pressure and some
times loss of consciousness.
 In extreme cases there is cession of
respiration, may be accompanied by
cardiac arrest due to ventricular
fibrillation resulting from electrical
stimulation of the heart.
 Cessation of respiration is recognized
by lack of respiratory movement and
cyanosis.
 Cardiac arrest by absence or
abnormality o respiratory
movements, absence of pulse in the
carotid artery and fully dilated pupils
Treatment of Electric Shock
 In the event of a shock occurring, the 1st step
is to disconnect the victim from the source of
supply; the current should be switched off at
once.
 If there is no switch in the circuit the victim
must be removed from contact with conductor.
 But the rescuer must tae care of not to receive
a shock himself from touching the affected
person, contact with whom should be made
only through thick layer of insulating material
 Following a minor shock the patient is
reassured and allowed to rest.
 Water may be given to drink but hot
drink should be avoided as they cause
vasodilatation and sweating and
consequently a further fall in blood
pressue.
 In all cases it is advisable to consult a
medical officer.
 If the shock is more severe the victim is
laid flat, in such a position that
respiratory passage are clear.
 Tight clothing is loosened and plenty of
air allowed.
 Undue warmth is avoided as it causes
vasodilatation, sweating and fall in BP,
also external heat increases metabolism
and so the demand for O2, of which there
is already a lack in the tissue
 If the patient is unconscious nothing
is given by the mouth and a medical
officer is summoned without delay.
 If respiration is ceased, the airway is
cleared and artificial respiration
commenced immediately by the
mouth to mouth or mouth to nose
method, or oxygen administered by a
bag and mask.
 In the event of cardiac arrest, external
cardiac massage must be applied in
addition to the above.
 It all cases of respiratory failure or
cardiac arrest it is essential to call
immediately for medical help.
 All persons liable to be called upon to
deal with such an emergency should
receive instruction in artificial respiration
and external cardiac massage, with
practice on a dummy
Causes Of Shock And Precautions
 A patient may receive a shock in the
course of an electrical treatment as a
result of a sudden increase in the
current.
 This may occur if a low-frequency (or
direct) current is switched on with the
controls turned up, or if insufficient time
is allowed for the apparatus to warm up
so that the current comes on suddenly
after the controls have been turned up.

333
 It can also occur if the intensity control
is turned up unduly during the intervals
in the flow of an interrupted or surged
current, or if the patient touches an
exposed part of the circuit.
 To avoid the occurrence of shocks from
these causes, all apparatus should be
tested before use, and connections
checked.

334
 Controls should be checked to ensure
that they are at zero before switching
on.
 Adequate warming-up time should be
allowed and the current intensity
increased with care.
 Patients should never be allowed to
touch electrical equipment and all
apparatus should be serviced regularly
by a competent electrician.
335
 The physiotherapist may receive a
shock when handling equipment two
live parts of the circuit are touched at
the same time.
 Apparatus should always be
disconnected from the source of
supply before faults are investigated.

336
 When light contact is made between two
conductors which are charged to different
electrical potentials, a spark passes between
them.
 Such sparking may occur on touching short-
wave diathermy electrodes to which current is
applied, or on making contact with the metal
casing of apparatus, especially the edges and
corners where charges concen­trate.
 Sparking causes unpleasant sensory
stimulation but is not dangerous and should
not really be classed as an electric shock.
337
Lecture # 23

Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan

BSPT, PP-DPT

Senior Lecturer
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
 Earth Shock

 When shock is due to a connection

between the live wire of the main and

earth it is known as earth shock.

The Earth Circuit
 Electric power is transmitted by
one live cable and one neutral
cable which is connected to earth.
 The earth forms part of the
conducting pathway and any
connection between the live wire of
the main and earth completes a
circuit through which current
passes.
 If some person forms part of this
circuit he receive an earth shock
 Thus an earth shock is liable to occur
if any person make contact with the
live wire of main while connected to
earth
Connection to the live wire
 A patient who is receiving treatment
with a current that is not earth free,
is connected to the live cable.
 Such a connection can also be made
by touching an exposed part of the
circuit, and if the switch breaks only
the neutral wire the connection can
be made even when switch is turned
off.
 If the insulation on the live wire is
faulty and the wire comes in contact
with some metal part of the
apparatus, such a the casing or the
reflector of infra red lamp, this part f
the apparatus will also provide a
connection to the live cable
Connection to the earth
 This may be made by touching any
conductor which is connected to earth,
such as gas or water pipes, radiators or
stone floors, particularly if they are
damp.
 A metal bed on such a floor or one which
is in contact with a pipe or radiator,
forms an earth connection.
 So does the casing of apparatus if it is
correctly connected to earth
Examples Of Earth Shock
 Simultaneously connection to the live
wire and to earth can occur in a
variety of ways;
 A patient who receiving treatment
with a current that is not earth free
may rest her hand on a water pipe;
 A physiotherapist holding an
electrode that is connected to the live
wire may touch the earthed
apperatus casing,
 If someone standing on a damp stone
floor touches the casing of apparatus
which is not connected to earth and
with which the live wire is in contact,
he too will receive an earth shock.
Precautions against earth
shock
 Physiotherapy departments should be
arranged so that there is minimum
danger of anyone making an earth
connection while in contact with
apparatus.
 Water and gas pipes should be out of
reach of the apparatus and of
patients receiving treatment.
 The floor should be of insulating
material and should be kept dry, as
water seeping through cracks in
linoleum to stone floor beneath can
for earth connection.
 If the floor is not of insulating
material a non conducting mat should
be placed under the patients feet
during electrical treatment
 Switches must break the live wire and
fuses must be on the live wire, so if
earth circuit is made and a large
current passes the fuse blows and
stops the current flow.
 The metal casing of all apparatus
must be connected to earth.
 Patient should not be permitted to
touch the apparatus during treatment
 Special care must be taken when currents are
administered in baths, as in these
circumstances an earth connection is easily
made.
 The bath must be insulating material and
leaking baths must not be used, as a trikle of
water may form a connection to earth.
 The bath should have no fixed taps or waste
pipe and if a rubber hose is used for filling the
bath must be removed before treatment is
begun, as when it is damp a current pass along
it.
 water should not be added to the bath during
treatment
Lecture # 24

Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan

BSPT, PP-DPT

Senior Lecturer
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
 Ionizing & Non-Ionizing
Radiation
 Radiation having a wide range of
energies form the electromagnetic
spectrum.
 The spectrum has two major
divisions:
1. Non-ionizing radiation
2. Ionizing radiation
 Radiation that has enough energy to
move atoms in a molecule around or
cause them to vibrate, but not
enough to remove electrons, is
referred to as "non-ionizing
radiation.“
 Examples of this kind of radiation are
sound waves, visible light, and
microwaves.
 Radiation that falls within the ionizing
radiation" range has enough energy
to remove tightly bound electrons
from atoms, thus creating ions.
 This is the type of radiation that
people usually think of as 'radiation.'
 We take advantage of its properties
to generate electric power, to kill
cancer cells, and in many
manufacturing processes.
 The energy of the radiation increases
from as the frequency rises.

Type of Radiation
Nonionizing Radiation
 Non-ionizing radiation ranges from
extremely low frequency radiation,
(the audible, microwave, and visible
portions of the spectrum into the
ultraviolet range)
 Extremely low-frequency radiation
has very long wave lengths (on the
order of a million meters or more)
and frequencies in the range of 100
Hertz or cycles per second or less.
 Radio frequencies have wave lengths
of between 1 and 100 meters and
frequencies in the range of 1 million
to 100 million Hertz.
 Microwaves that we use to heat food
have wavelengths that are about 1
hundredth of a meter long and have
frequencies of about 2.5 billion Hertz.
Ionizing Radiation
 Higher frequency ultraviolet radiation
begins to have enough energy to
break chemical bonds.
 X-ray and gamma ray radiation,
which are at the upper end of
magnetic radiation have very high
frequency --in the range of 100 billion
billion Hertz--and very short
wavelengths--1 million millionth of a
meter
 Radiation in this range has extremely high
energy.
 It has enough energy to strip off electrons or,
in the case of very high-energy radiation, break
up the nucleus of atoms.
 Ionization is the process in which a charged
portion of a molecule (usually an electron) is
given enough energy to break away from the
atom.
 This process results in the formation of two
charged particles or ions: the molecule with a
net positive charge, and the free electron with
a negative charge.
 Each ionization releases approximately 33
electron volts (eV) of energy.
 Material surrounding the atom absorbs the
energy.
 Compared to other types of radiation that may
be absorbed, ionizing radiation deposits a large
amount of energy into a small area.
 In fact, the 33 eV from one ionization is more
than enough energy to disrupt the chemical
bond between two carbon atoms.
 All ionizing radiation is capable, directly or
indirectly, of removing electrons from most
molecules.
 There are three main kinds of ionizing
radiation:
 Alpha Particles Alpha particles
(symbol α ) are a type of ionizing
radiation ejected by the nuclei of
some unstable atoms.
 They are large subatomic fragments
consisting of two protons and two
neutrons.
 Beta Particles; Beta particles are
subatomic particles ejected from the
nucleus of some radioactive atoms.
They are equivalent to electrons.
 The difference is that beta particles
originate in the nucleus and electrons
originate outside the nucleus.
 Gamma Rays; A gamma ray is a
packet of electromagnetic energy--a
photon.
 Gamma photons are the most
energetic photons in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
 Gamma rays (gamma photons) are
emitted from the nucleus of some
unstable (radioactive) atoms.
Lecture # 25

Dr Waqar Ahmed Awan

BSPT, PP-DPT

Senior Lecturer
ISRS, Isra University
Islamabad Campus
 External and Internal Radiation
Exposures to Radiation

 There are two potential primary

exposure types connected with work
involving radioisotopes:
 External exposure to radiation.
 Internal exposure to radiation.
External Radiation Exposure
 External hazards arise when radiation from a
source external to the body penetrates the
body and causes a dose of ionizing radiation.
 These exposures can be from gamma or x-
rays, neutrons, alpha particles or beta
particles; they are dependent upon both the
type and energy of the radiation.
 Most beta particles do not normally penetrate
beyond the skin, but when sufficiently intense,
can cause skin and/or eye damage
 X and gamma rays, along with
neutron radiation, are very
penetrating, and are of primary
importance when evaluating external
radiation exposure and usually must
be shielded.
 The onset of first observable effects
of acute radiation exposure,
diminished red blood cell count, may
occur
 Exposure to external radiation may
be controlled by
 limiting the working time in the radiation
field,
 working at a distance from the source of
radiation,
 inserting shielding between the worker
and the source, and
 using no more radioactive material than
necessary.
Internal Radiation Exposure
 Internal exposures arise when
radiation is emitted from radioactive
materials present within the body.
 Although external hazards are
primarily caused by x-rays, gamma
rays, high energy betas and all forms
of radiation can cause internal
radiation exposures.
 Alpha particles create a high
concentration of ions along their path,
and can cause severe damage to
internal organs and tissues when they
are inhaled, ingested or are present
on the skin.
 Once these particles get into the
body, damage can occur since there
is no protective dead skin layer to
shield the organs and tissues.
 Internal exposures are not limited to
the intake of large amounts at one
time (acute exposure).
 Chronic exposure may arise from an
accumulation of small amounts of
radioactive materials over a long
period of time.