CHAPTER – 1

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

1. What is electrostatics?
Electrostatics is the branch of physics which deals with electric charges at rest. The charges at rest are
produced due to friction between two insulating bodies which are rubbed against each other. That is why
electrostatics is also called frictional electricity.
2. What is meant by electric charge?
Electric charge is a basic property of material particles just as its mass. An electric charge is a
characteristic that accompanies fundamental particles, wherever they exist. According to William Gilbert,
charge is some thing possessed by material objects that make it possible for them to exert electrical force
and to respond to electrical force.
3. What is meant by frictional electricity?
When we rub a body with another suitable material both of them becomes electrically charged. Here the
cause of electrification is friction. Due to friction electrons tear away from one body and adhere to the
other. The body from which electrons tear away becomes positively charged and the body to which
electrons adhere becomes negatively charged.
4. Explain how frictional charges are developed?
When two substances are rubbed together, the one which loses electrons becomes positively charged and
the one which gains electrons becomes negatively charged. Which material will lose electron and which
material will gain electron? It depends on how loosely or strongly the electron is attached to an atom of
the material.
5. If a particle is found to have no charge, how do you explain it?
If a particle has zero charge, then the positive charge on it is equal to the negative charge.
6. What is the unit of electric charge?
SI unit of electric charge is coulomb. Symbol C
-3 -6
1 milli coulomb = 1mC = 10 C 1 micro coulomb = 1µC = 10 C .
The CGS unit is called stat coulomb or electrostatic unit. Short form for electrostatic unit is e.s.u.
1 coulomb = 3×109 e. s. u.
Another unit is called electromagnetic unit. The short form is e.m.u.
1 e m u = 10coulombs 1 e m u = 3×1010 e s u.
7. What is the charge on an electron?
-19 -10 -20
Electron charge = - 1.6×10 C = - 4.8×10 e s u = - 1.6×10 emu
8. What is the charge on a proton?
-19 -10 -20
The protonic charge = +1.6×10 C = +4.8×10 esu = +1.6×10 e m u
9. Can we charge a body (1)negatively (2)positively?
A body can be charged negatively by adding electrons to it. A body is charged positively by removing
electrons from it.
10. What happens to the mass of a body when it is charged (1) negatively (2) positively?
When a body is charged negatively electrons are added. So the mass will increase. When a body is
charged positively electrons are removed from it. So the mass will decrease
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11. Who was the first to observe frictional electricity?
The Greek Scientist Thales of milletus was the first to detect frictional electricity in the case of amber
12. When glass is rubbed with silk what is the nature of charge developed?
Glass become + vely charged and silk – vely charged because glass loses electrons and silk gains
electrons
13. When ebonite is rubbed with fur what is the nature of charge developed?
Ebonite –vely charged and fur positively charged
14. What is the nature of charges in the following cases?(1)Amber, rubbed with woolen cloth.
(2) Rubber Rubbed with woolen cloth
(3) Rubber Shoe rubbed on carpet
(1) Amber –ve, woolen cloth +ve
(2) Rubber –ve, woolen cloth +ve
(3) Rubber shoe-ve, carpet +ve
15. Which scientist assumed the charge on the electron – ve and the charge on the proton +ve?
Benjamin Franklin
16. What is meant by electrostatic induction?
Production of equal positive and negative charges by the presence of another charge is called electrostatic
induction.
17. Illustrate electrostatic induction?

Consider a positively charged body A brought near a metallic conductor BC. Then negative charges will
appear at the near end and positive charge will appear at the farther end. This phenomenon is called
electrostatic induction. The charge on A is inducing charge and charge on BC, are induced charges.
Faraday has shown that in the case of metals,
1. Induced positive charge is equal to induced negative charge
2.Inducing charge = induced charge
18. Explain how a body can be charged negatively by induction ?

To charge a body negatively by induction bring a positively charged body near it. Negative charge will
be produced on the near end and positive charge on the farther end. Now earth the body by touching it.
The positive charge flows to the earth. Remove the earthing as well as the positively charged body . Thus
the negative charge is distributed over BC.
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19. Explain the theory of electrification by induction?

There are a large number of free electrons in a metal. When we place a positively charged body near a
metal rod BC, the positiveve charge A exerts force on the negatively charged electrons towards the
positive charge. Since the electrons are free to move, they move towards the end B, making the end B
negative and the end C positive.
If A carries a negative charge it will repel the free electrons at the end B and makes it positive.
Note : The charge on A exerts forces on the protons in BC. But they cannot move, since they are not free.
20.ELECTROSCOPE

A gold leaf electroscope is a device used to detect the presence of charges and to know the nature of
charges.
21. Explain how you charge a gold leaf electroscope positively by induction?

1.Bring a positively charged body (A) near the cap of the electroscope. Positive charge will be induced
on the cap and negative charge on the leaves . The leaves diverge.

In the presence of A, earth the electroscope by touching the cap. The negative charge on the leaves go to
the earth and the leaves collapse. But the positive charge on the cap remains there itself because it is
attracted by the positive charge A.
Now remove the earthing as well as the body A .The positive charge gets distributed on the leaves ie.
Electrons from the leaves go to the cap, there by making the leaves positive and the cap neutral.
22. A gold leaf electroscope is positively charged. What will happen to the divergence if

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 (1) a positively charged body (2) negatively charged body is brought near the cap?
When positively charged body is brought near the cap of a positively charged electroscope, the
divergence will increase because the positive charge induced on the leaves increase the total charges on
leaves. But when a positively charged body is brought near the cap of a gold leaf electroscope the
divergence decrease because the induced negative charges decrease the total charges on the leaves.
Thus, on bringing a charge near a charged electroscope, if the divergence increases, the charge brought is
same as the charge already on the leaves. If the divergence decreases, the charge brought is of opposite
nature.
23. What are the properties of electric charges?
a. Quantization .
b. Additive property
c. Charge Conservation.
d. Speed Independence
24. What is meant by quantization of electric charge?
The charge on the electron or proton is the smallest charge that exists. If the charge on the electron is –ve
the charge on the proton is +ve. Any charged body consist of charges which are integral multiplies of
these charges ie ± e, ±2e, ±3e,……………. ±ne where n is an integer. This experimental fact is known as
‘quantization of electric charge’.
25. What are Quarks?
Quarks are fundamental particles which have fractional charges. Quantization principle of electric charge
was put forward before the discovery of quarks. In recent years particles carrying charges e/3 and 2e/3
have been predicted. These particles have been named “quarks” . Even if these particles are detected
experimentally, quantization of charge will not be affected. Only the size of basic unit of charge would
decrease to e/3.
26. What is meant by additive property of electric charges?
The mass of an extended body or a system of particles is the sum of the masses of all the individual
charges. Similarly the total charge of an extended body is the sum of the individual charges. This is
known as the additive property of electric charges.
27. What is meant by charge conservation?
During the interaction between two bodies, the total momentum as well as the total energy is conserved.
Similarly electric charges also are conserved. If there is an isolated matter in a region of space, and if no
matter enters or leaves the region, the total charge in the region will remain unchanged, whatever be the
change that takes place in the matter considered. In other words, the total charge remains constant,
whether the change taking place in an isolated matter is physical, chemical or nuclear. This is known as
conservation of charge. This is taken as a necessary condition for equations in electricity and magnetism
to be consistent.
28. What is meant by speed independence of electric charge?


The mass of a particle varies with speed according to the relation m =   . But charge remains



constant and is independent of speed.

29. What are the difference between electric charge and mass?
(1) Charge can be +ve, -ve or zero, but mass is always positive(2) Charge is quantized. Mass is not
strictly quantized. (3) Charge is independent of speed. Mass increases with speed.(4) Charge is
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 conserved. But mass is not conserved at relativistic velocities and in nuclear reactions.(5) Electric charges
can cancel each other while mass of particles cannot cancel each other.
30. Can two similarly charged balls attract each other?
Yes, when charge of one, say A is much larger than the charge on the other, say B. On account of
induction, the ball B carrying smaller charge acquire some net charge of opposite sign lying closer to A.
Hence B will experience some net force of attraction
31. What is meant by Du Fay’s Law?
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. i.e two positive charges repel, two negative charges attract
each other.
COULOMB’S INVERSE SQUARE LAW
32. State and explain Coulomb’s inverse square law?
The force of attraction or repulsion between 2 point charges is directly proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Expression for the force : Consider 2 charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r. Let F be the force
between them. Then. F α q1 q2 ,

Fα 
,

Fα 
,

F=A 

Where A is a constant which depends on the system of units. For SI System A = .

 
∴F = 

where εo is called the absolute permittivity free space which is filled in the medium between the
charges. It gives an idea about how much electric effect will be absorbed [cut short] by the medium.

If ε is the permittivity of any medium then, ε = ε ε or ε =
 .
Where εo is the permittivity of free space ( air or vacuum ) εr is called the relative permittivity or
permittivity with respect to air or vacuum.
1 q q 1 q q
So with any medium , F
= 4πε 1r2 2 = 4πε ε 1r2 2 .
0 r
For air or vacuum εr = 1
 
∴F = 
.

-12 2 2
The value of ε0 is 8.854 x 10 Farad / metre or coulomb / Newton metre . εr has no unit
33. Give permittivity values of some common substances?
Glass 2 to 3, Ebonite 2 to 3 , Sulphur 3.8 , Mica 6.4 , Paraffin 2 to 4 ,
Water 80 , Air at STP 1.0008 , Hydrogen 1.003
Metal : infinite ie metal is not as dielectric.

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34. If a dielectric medium is introduced between two charges placed in air how will the force between
the charges be affected?

The force will decrease to times

   
Proof : F air = 
. F medium = 
.
  
 
= εr is always greater than 1. Hence F med is always less than F air.
!"  .
35. Explain Why CuSO4 molecules ionize easily in water?
In solid CuSO4 the force between the positive Cu ion and negative sulphate ion is large. But when it is in
water, the force between the ions decrease to 1/80 times since the relative permittivity of water is 80. In
water CuSO4 molecules move about like water molecules and suffer collision. The collision results in
ionization.
36. What happens to the force between two charges situated in air when a metal plate is introduced
between them?
For a metal εr = infinity. Therefore the force between the charges will be reduced to zero.
37. Obtain inverse square law in vector form?
Consider two charges q1and q2 separated by distance r ,

r̂ 12 ........(1)

The force on charge q1 due to charge q2 F 12 = 


r̂ 21 …….(2)

The force on charge q2 due to charge q1 F 21 = 

But r̂ $ = − r̂ $
1 q q
∴ F 21 = − 4πε 1r2 2 r̂ $ = − F12 . [ that is for every action there will be an equal and opposite reaction)
0
38. Define SI unit of charge ?
One coulomb is that charge which when placed in air or vacuum at a distance of 1 metre from an equal
9
and similar charge repels it with a force of 9 x 10 Newton.
  9
F= 
when q1 = 1C , q2 = 1C r = 1m, F = 9 x 10 N

ELECTRIC FIELD
39. Define electric field?
The region around a charge where another charge can experience a force is called an electric field. The
same charge q when placed at different points will experience different forces. Therefore we say that the
strength of the electric field is different at different points.
40. Define intensity of electric field or strength of electric field. ?
Intensity of electric field E(r) at a point r, in space is defined as
E(r) = &'()→ ) ,
+

where F is the total force on a small positive test charge q placed at that point r.
+,-./ +
Electric field = 012-3/ . E=) . F=qE
The unit is Newton /coulomb or
= Nm / Cm = Joule / coulomb metre = J/C m =V /m
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 This gives the magnitude of the force. Since F and E are vectors. 45 = 675 8
Positive charge will experience a force in the direction of the field and the negative
ve charge will
experience a force in the opposite direction.
41.The expression for the field due to a point charge
Consider a point charge “q” placed at origin O. Let P be a point distant r from the origin. We are required
to find the electric field at P. For this place a positive test charge ((q0) at P.

By inverse square law, force on the test charge is

 ) 
F = 9:  .
 -
+  )
Field at P is E (r) = = 9: - 

 ) -5
In vector form, E (r) = 9: - 
;̂ . ;̂ = - .
 ) -5
E(r ) = 9: -  -
.
 )
E( r) = ;5 .
9: - <
42. Define uniform electric field?
A uniform electric field is one in which a positive test charge experience the same force at all points in
magnitude as well as direction.
LINE OF FORCE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
A line of force in an electric field is the imaginary line or curve along which a free +ve test charge would
move and the tangent to the curve at any point will give the direction of the electric field at that point.
43. What are the properties of lines of force?
1. Lines of force are smooth continuous curves which start from the positive ve charge and end in the
negative charge.
2. The direction of the electric field at any point is given by the tangent to th
thee line of force at that point.
3. Two lines of force can never inter sect.

Suppose two lines of force interest at P. Then, at the point of intersection, we can draw two tangents PT1
and PT2. This means that the electric field at P can have two directions. But electric field is a single
valued function, having only one magnitude and one direction at a point, Therefore, lines of force cannot
intersect.
4. The number of lines of force passing through unit area ie., the density of lines of force, is measure of
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 the intensity of electric field at that point.
5. The lines of force due to a uniform electric field are parallel equidistant and in the same direction.
6. The lines of force contract longitudinally and repel each other laterally
7. Lines of force always start normal to a surface and end normal to a surface.

44.Draw
.Draw the lines of force due to point positive charge only, negative charge only, positive and negative
charges separated by a distance, two positive charges separated by a distance.

45. What are the characteristics of the field due to a point charge?
1. The field due to a point charge is spherically symmetric, ie., it is the same in all directions at
equidistant points.
2. The field always points either towards or away from the charge.
3. Its magnitude at any point depends only on the distance r and not on the direction of r.
46. What is meant by null point.
A null point in an electric field is the point where the resultant field is zero.
47.. When two like charges are separated by a distance where will be field null point?

8
 When two like charges are separated by a distance the null point will be
1. on the line joining the charges.
2 .in between the charges
3. nearer to the smaller charge.
) )
4. and such that  =-  . Where r1 and r2 are the distance of the null point from q1 and q2
-
To derive the condition (4)
 ) =  ) . i.e , ) = ) .
At the null point E1 = E2.    
9: - 9: - - -
If q1 = q2 the null point will be at the centre.
48. What is meant by flux through an area?
The electric flux through an area is the total number of electric lines of force passing normal to the
surface.
49. What is the unit of electric flux?
The unit is = = = Vm.
50. When do you consider area as a vector?
In many problems area is to be treated as vector. These are problems in which the orientation of area
plays a part in deciding the magnitude of the physical quantity. The direction of the area vector is
perpendicular to the area and along the outward drawn normal. The length of the perpendicular gives the
magnitude of the area vector.

Consider a small area of a area ds of a closed surface Area vector is given by the perpendicular . ds
represents the magnitude of the area.
51 .What is meant by surface integral of the electric field vector?

Consider a small element ds of a closed surface. Let be the electric field at the element. Then
is called the surface integral of the electric field taken over the surface.
52. What is the physical meaning of surface integral of electric field?

Consider a small element ds of a closed surface. Let be the electric field vector. Let θ be the angle
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 between and . The component of perpendicular to area ds ie. parallel to area vector is E cos θ.
Small flux through area vector is d Φ = E cos θ ds = . .
∴Total flux through the surface Φ = .
Thus surface integral gives the total flux through the surface.
Dimensional formula for electric flux
Φ = EA = N/C m2 = MLT-2 L2 / AT = ML3T-3 A-1
DIPOLE
53. Define dipole and dipole moment ?
Two equal and opposite charges separated by a distance constitute a dipole. Dipole moment of an electric
dipole is measured as the product of one of the charges and the distance between the charges.
Dipole moment = charge x distance between the charges. Symbol of dipole moment is P.
P = q a where q is one of the charges and a is the distance between the charges.
54. What is the unit of dipole moment. ?
>75 = q a . SI unit is coulomb metre = Cm. CGS unit is Debye
>75 =q a = (AT)L = LTA is the dimensional formulae. Dipole moment is a vector because its orientation in
an electric field determines its behavior in the field. The direction of dipole moment is from –ve charge to
+ve charge.
55. What are meant by axial line and equatorial line of a dipole ?

The line passing through the two charges of a dipole is known as axial line. A point on the axial line is
also called a point on the end on position. The line perpendicular to the dipole and passing through the
centre of the dipole is called equatorial line.
A point on the equatorial line is also called
1. a point on the board side on position.
2. point on the perpendicular bisector .
3. point equi-distant from the charges.
56. Derive expression for the field along the axial line of a dipole.
The axial line of a dipole is the line joining the charges. Consider a dipole composed of -q at A and +q at
B, separated by a distance 2a and placed along the x axis such that its mid point is at the origin.

The dipole moment P= q (2a). Let P1 be a point along the axial line at a distance r from +q.
 )
Electric field intensity at P1 due to +q , 6? = right..
9: (-2)

10
 1 8
Electric field intensity at P1 due to - q , 6 = 4BC 2 left..
0 (;+E)

Net electric field intensity at P1 675F/G = 675? − 675

 2-)
Enet(r) = right.
9: (-  2 )
 $()×$2)-
Enet(r) = to right.
9: (-  2 )
 $I -
Enet(r) = to right.
9: (-  2 )
The direction of this electric field is always along the length of the dipole from – q to +q .
For a short dipole a2 can be neglected in comparison to r2 .
 $I -
Enet(r)= to right .
9: (-  )J
 $I
Enet(r)= to right .
9: - <
57.Derive expression for the field along the equatorial line of a dipole?

Equatorial line is that line passing through the centre of the dipole and perpendicular to the length.
Consider a dipole composed of-q at A and +q at B, separated by a distance 2a and placed along the x axis
such that its mid point is at the origin. The dipole moment P=q(2a). Let P be a point along the equatorial
line at a distance r from centre of dipole . Then the field at P due to +q at B is
 )
6(+) = 9: (- ?2 ) from P to D .

 )
6(−) = 9: (-  ?2 )
from P to F . E(+) and E(-) are numerically equal.
∴ the resultant intensity will be along PX1
Resultant field at P2 is E(r) = E + LMN O + E- LMN O.
1 8 1 8
E( r) = 4BC0 (;2 +E2 )
LMN O +
4BC0 (;2 +E2 )
LMN O
 $
E (r) = cos θ ,
 (  ?P )
 $ P
E(r) = .
 (  ?P ) √  ?P
 $ P
 (  ?P )<X
Er = . This field is parallel to the dipole from +q to -q .

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 For a short dipole a2 can be neglected in comparison with r2 .
 Y
E(r) =
 <
58. Write down the formula for the field at any point due to a dipole?
 Y
E (any) = √1 + 3cos $ θ
 <

59. A dipole is placed in a uniform electric field. Obtain expressions for the force and torque on the
dipole ?
Consider a dipole AB. Let q be the magnitude of charge and “a” the distance between them.

>75 = 8 E5 . It is directed from B to A.

Let it be placed in a uniform electric field of strength 675 making an angle θ with the field. Force +q at A is
F = + q E in the direction of the field. Force on –q at B is
F= - qE in the opposite direction.
Net force on the dipole = + qE + ¯qE = 0. Though there is no net force, there is a torque on the dipole.
The forces at A and B constitute a couple.
Torque or moment of the couple :
Torque [5 = Any one force x perpendicular distance.
[5 = q E x BN ,
\]
= N'_ O , BN = AB sin θ
^\
[5 = qE x AB sin θ
= qE x a sin θ
= (q a) x E sin θ
= PE sin θ
So [5 = PE sin θ .
[5 = >75 × 675
Discussion of [5 = PE sin θ
Case 1 : θ = 0 Dipole parallel to field. Sin θ = sin 0 = 0. ∴ τ = 0 Thus the net force = 0,
net torque = 0. Dipole is in equilibrium and the equilibrium is stable.
0
Case II : θ = 90 . Dipole perpendicular to field
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 τ = PE sin 90 = PE, which is a positive maximum. Positive means, it will try to rotate in the anti-clock
wise direction when released.
Case III : θ = 1800. sin 180 = 0 ∴ τ = 0 . It is in equilibrium, but the equilibrium is unstable.
Case IV : θ = 2700. sin 270 = -1 , τ = - PE negative maximum, Negative sign shows that it will rotate in
the clockwise direction when released.
60. A dipole is placed in a non uniform electric field.What are the force and torque on it?

In a non- uniform field the charges +q and –q will be situated at fields E1 and E2.
They will experience forces F1 = qE1 and F2 = qE2. F1and F2are in opposite directions.
If E1 > E2.
Net torque = smaller force × perpendicular distance = qE2 x BN.
Here it is assumed that the direction of the field remains the same throughout and only the magnitude
changes.
61. Derive the formula for the work done in rotating a dipole from θ1 to θ2 in an electric field. How
does the work done manifest on the dipole?
Consider a dipole of dipole moment >75 placed in a uniform electric field of intensity 675 .
The torque acting on it is [5 = PE sin θ where θ is the angle made by the dipole with the field.
Let the dipole be rotated through an additional angle d θ. Over this displacement d θ, the torque can be
considered to be a constant. The small work done during this process is
dW = [5 d θ = PE sin θ d θ
The total amount of work done in rotating from θ1 to θ2 is
a
= PE`a  N'_ O dO
= - PE(− LMN O)aa
= - PE(LMN O$ − LMN O )
= PE(LMN O − LMN O$ )
This work done resides on it as its increase of potential energy.
U = PE ( cos θ1 – cos θ2 )
Zero level of potential energy is taken as the
P.E possessed by it when θ = 900
ie. When the dipole is perpendicular to the field. So potential energy of the dipole for an inclination θ, is
obtained by putting θ1 = 90 and θ2 = θ.
U = PE (cos 90 – cos θ )
U = - PE cos θ

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62.. If the zero level potential energy is taken as the position perpendicular to the field what is the
expression for the PE of a dipole when the inclination is θ ?
Increase in P.E U1 – U2 = PE( cos θ1 –cos θ2 ).
U1=0 , U2=U , O = 90 , O$ = O ,
∴ c = >6 LMN O
63.. What is meant by dipole field. What is special about dipole field ?
The field produced by a dipole is known as dipole field. There cannot be null point around a dipole.
GAUSS’S THEOREM
64.What
What are the types of charge distribution
distribution?
)
(1) Linear density denoted by λ = .Unit C/m
d
e
(2).Surface density denoted by σ = f .Unit C / m2
)
(3).Volume density denoted by ρ = . Unit is C/ m3
g
65.State explain and prove gauss’s theorem ?
The total flux through a closed surface is equal to times the total charge enclosed by the surface
where ε0 is the permittivity of free space.
Explanation : If E is the electric field over an elemental area of a closed surface, then the total flux
through the surface Φ = .
According to the theorem this must be equal to times the charge enclosed .
∴ Gauss’s theorem can be written Φ = =
Proof :
Let q be a +ve charge placed at any point O. Imagine a sphere of radius r and the charge q as centre . Let
ds be the elemental area at a distance r from the charge.

Field on the elemental area E = . is parallel to .

The small flux passing through the elemental area d Φ = = E cos 0 (ds)
= ds.
The surface can be considered to be made up of a number of such small elements. The total flux passing
through the entire surface can be obtained by adding up such small contributions.
∴Total flux Φ = ds

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 Total flux Φ = q

If there are a number of chares q1,q2,q3 etc. then Φ = (q1 + q 2 + q3 ….)

66. Apply Gauss’s theorem to find the field due to an infinitely long line charge?
Consider and infinite line charge of linear charge density λ Cm-1. Let P be a point distant r from the line
charge. Required to find the electric field at P. For this consider a right cylinder of length L passing
through P co-axial with the line charge. It has 3 faces, curved surface and 2 flat surfaces. The surface of
this cylinder is known as Gaussian Surface.

Consider a small element ds around P. Electric field vector is along the outward drawn normal. ∴θ = 0
The small amount of flux passing through the elemental area ds is
dΦ1 = = E ds cos θ = E ds cos 0= Eds x 1
= Eds .
E is the same in magnitude at every point on the curved surface of the cylinder. So the total flux passing
through the curved surface.
Φ1 = = =E = E 2π rL .
For the bottom and top surfaces the electric field is parallel to the surface and the normal component of
electric field is zero.
Flux through top surface Φ2 =0 .
Flux through the bottom surface Φ3 =0 .
Total flux passing through Gaussian surface , Φ = Φ1 + Φ2 + Φ3 = E x 2πrL ,
Φ = E x 2πrL,
E x 2πrL .
ie E is proportional to .

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 E r is a constant. The graph between E & r is a rectangular hyperbola.

nfinity long cylindrical charge outside is same as in the previous case .But
NOTE: Field due to an infinity
inside the cylinder electric field is zero because if we consider a Gaussian surface inside,
inside it will not
enclosed any charge.
67.. Apply Gauss’s theorem to find the field due to a point charge.

Let P be a point distant r from a point charge q. Required to find the field E at P. For this imagine a
sphere passing through P having its centre at the charge. It is the Gua
Guassian
ssian Surface.
Consider an elemental area ds around P. Let E by the electric field over this area. By symmetry the
electric field will have the same magnitude over area ds, electric field vector is parallel to the area
vector , . ∴θ = 0 .Cos θ = 1.
The small flux passing through the elemental area is dΦ = = Eds
Total flux passing through the entire area is
Φ1 = – = = =E4 .
By Gauss’s theorem Φ = q

E 4π r2 = q .

E=

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68. Apply Gauss’s theorem to find the field due to a hollow charged sphere ?

Case 1 : Point outside

Consider a hollow sphere of radius R, with charge q on it. Let P be a point distant r from the centre and
outside. Required to find the field at P. For this imagine a sphere passing through P and concentric with
the charged sphere. It is the Gaussian surface. Consider an elemental area ds around P.
The electric field over this area is parallel to the area vector. ∴θθ = 0. Cos θ = 1. The small flux
passing through this area
dΦ = – = = .
By symmetry the electric field will have the same magnitude E over the entire surface. Total flux through
the entire spherical surface.
Φ= – = = = E4
By Gauss’s theorem Φ = q ,

E 4 πr2 = q,

E= .
Thus the field is same as if the charge is concentrated at the centre of the sphere.
Case II : Point on the sphere.( when r =R)
Φ= – = = = E4 .
By Gauss’s theorem Φ = q,

E4 = q,

E= .
Thus the field is same as if the charge is concentrated at the centre of the sphere.
Case III : Point Inside

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 Let P1 be a point inside the sphere. Imagine a sphere passing through the point P1 and concentric with
the hollow sphere. Let E 1 be the electric field at P. Its magnitude will be the same all over the Gaussian
surface ,
Φ = – = = =E4
By Gauss’s theorem Φ = q,

E4 = q,
But q = 0 since there is no charge inside the hollow sphere
∴ E = 0 .Thus the field inside a hollow charged sphere is zero.

69. Apply Gauss’s theorem of find the field due to a thin insulating sheet of charge
Consider an infinite plane sheet of charge of surface density of charge σ . Let P be a point near it.

We are required to find the electric field at P. For this consider a small circular area A around P and
parallel to the sheet of charge. Over this construct a right cylinder meeting the plane sheet of charge
and produce it to the point P such that the plane sheet of charge is midway between P and P1.
The surface of this cylinder forms the Gaussian surface. By symmetry the field will be normal to the
circular area and parallel to the cylindrical area. Let E be the electric field at P. then field at P1 also
will be the same as E in magnitude.
Flux passing through area around A is Φ1 = EA.
Flux passing through area around A1 is Φ2 =EA .
The component of E perpendicular to the cylinder surface is zero. So flux through the cylindrical
surface Φ3= 0.
Total flux Φ= Φ1+Φ2+Φ3 = 2 EA
Total charge enclosed by the surface = σ A .( charge is only on one side )
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 By Gauss’s theorem Φ = q,
2EA = σ A ,
E= .
The field is independent of the distance as long as the distance is small .
70. Apply gauss’s theorem to find the field due to a thin conducting sheet of charge ?
In the case of a conducting sheet, charge reside on both sides of the conducting sheet. If σ is the
surface density of charge on one side, then the surface density of charge on the other side also will be σ .
So charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is q = 2 σ A
By Gauss’s Law Φ = q ,

2EA = 2 σ A,

E= .
71. Two infinite plane sheets of charge are kept parallel to each other. Find the field at the three
regions.

Consider two infinite plane sheets of charge A & B of surface density of ch

charge
arge σ1 and σ2. There are 3
distinct regions namely region 1, region II, and region III.

Field in the 1st region. 6h = − ( i + i$ ) -
$:

Field in the 2nd region 6hh = $:
( i − i$ )

Field in the 3rd region 6hhh = $:
( i + i$ )
Here the fields to the left are taken as negative and those to the right are taken as +ve.
Let σ1= + σ and σ2 = - σ
then EI = 0 EIII = 0 and EII = 2σ .

EII = .
Thus in the case of 2 infinite plane parallel sheets of charges with equal and opposite charge densities,
the electric field will be nonzero only between the sheets.
This is the result which we will employ in parallel plate capacitor.
NOTE: Field due to a solid olid charged conducting sphere will be same as above , since all the charge
will be residing on the surface of the solid conducting sphere.
72. A solid insulating sphere of radius R is uniformly charged with charge Q.. What is the field at.
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1. Point outside 2.Point on the sphere 3.Point inside
 j
1. Point outside Eo =
9: - 
 j
2. Point on the sphere Es =
9: k 
3. Point inside
Let Pi be a point inside the sphere. Imagine a sphere passing through the point Pi and concentric with
the solid insulating sphere having radius “x”. Let E be the electric field at Pi.
Φ = – = = =E4
By Gauss’s theorem Φ = q ,

Ei 4Bl $ = q ……………………..(1)

Associated with Bn m we have charge “Q” . Associated with Bl m we have charge “q”.
m m
j k<
Dividing the two = .
) o<
o<
Then 8 = p ………………….(2)
k<
Substitute (2) in (1)
 jo
Ei =
9: k <
Ei x
At the centre x= o, this means at centre of solid insulating sphere electric field is zero
This one is a unique result in Physics

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