1

Classical Mechanics

Department of Mathematics, Science & Technology

Education

By: S. Masuku
1D kinematics

By: S. J. C. Masuku 2
 What is mechanics?
 This is the study of how and why things move.
 Kinematics: the study of how things move.
 Dynamics: the study of why things move.
 Motion: continuous change of position with time.
 There are 4 basic types of motion.

Linear motion

Circular motion Rotational motion

Projectile motion By: S. J. C. Masuku 3

Kinematics in 1D
Distance and Displacement
• Displacement () of a particle is
change in position of the particle in
some time interval.
• Distance is the length of a path
followed by a particle.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 4
 Displacement
 Displacement is a change of position in time.
 Displacement: x  x f (t f )  xi (ti )
 f stands for final and i stands for initial.
 It is a vector quantity.
 It has both magnitude and direction: + or - sign
 It has units of [length]: meters.

x1 (t1) = + 2.5 m
x2 (t2) = - 2.0 m
Δx = -2.0 m - 2.5 m = -4.5 m

x1 (t1) = - 3.0 m
x2 (t2) = + 1.0 m
Δx = +1.0 m + 3.0 m = +4.0 m
By: S. J. C. Masuku 5
 Distance and Position-time graph

 Displacement in space
 From A to B: Δx = xB – xA = 52 m – 30 m = 22 m
 From A to C: Δx = xc – xA = 38 m – 30 m = 8 m
 Distance is the length of a path followed by a particle
 from A to B: d = |xB – xA| = |52 m – 30 m| = 22 m
 from A to C: d = |xB – xA|+ |xC – xB| = 22 m + |38 m – 52 m| = 36 m
 Displacement is not Distance.
By: S. J. C. Masuku 6
 Vector and Scalar
 A vector quantity is characterized by having both a
magnitude and a direction.
– Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force …
– Denoted in boldface type v , a, For...with an arrow over the top .
 
v , a , F ...
 A scalar quantity has magnitude, but no direction.
– Distance, Mass, Temperature, Time …
 For motion along a straight line, the direction is
represented simply by + and – signs.
– + sign: Right or Up.
– - sign: Left or Down.
 1-D motion can be thought of as a
component of 2-D and 3-D motions.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 7
4 Basic Quantities in Kinematics

These concepts can be used to study objects in motion

By: S. J. C. Masuku 8
 Velocity
 Velocity is the rate of change of position.
 Velocity is a vector quantity.
 Velocity has both magnitude and direction. displacement
 Velocity has a unit of [length/time]: meter/second.
 We will be concerned with three quantities, defined asdistance
:
 Average velocity
x x f  xi
vavg  
t t
 Average speed
total distance
 Instantaneous savg 
t
 velocity Instantaneous velocity is
x dx the velocity of an object at
v  lim  a specific instant in time.
t  0  t dt
displacement
By: S. J. C. Masuku 9
Average Velocity
• Average velocity
x x f  xi
vavg  
t t

is the slope of the line segment

between end points on a graph.
• Dimensions: length/time (L/T)
[m/s].
• SI unit: m/s.
• It is a vector (i.e. is signed), and
displacement direction sets its sign .

By: S. J. C. Masuku 10
Average Speed
• Average speed
total distance
savg 
t
• Dimension: length/time, [m/s].
• Scalar: No direction involved.
• Not necessarily close to Vavg:
– Savg = (6m + 6m)/(3s+3s) = 2 m/s
– Vavg = (0 m)/(3s+3s) = 0 m/s

By: S. J. C. Masuku 11
Graphical Interpretation of Velocity

 Velocity can be determined

from a position-time graph
 Average velocity equals the
slope of the line joining the
initial and final positions. It
is a vector quantity.
 An object moving with a
constant velocity will have a
graph that is a straight line.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 12
 Instantaneous Velocity
 Instantaneous means “at some given instant”. The
instantaneous velocity indicates what is happening at every
point of time.
 Limiting process:
 Chords approach the tangent as Δt => 0
 Slope measure rate of change of position
x dx
 Instantaneous velocity: v  lim 
t  0  t dt
 It is a vector quantity.
 Dimension: length/time (L/T), [m/s].
 It is the slope of the tangent line to x(t).
 Instantaneous velocity v(t) is a function of time.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 13
Example 1
(a) If you require the average velocity for the car when it
was travelling between positions A position B, you draw
a straight line between the points representing A and B
in the graph.

Here the average velocity turns out to be positive. What

this average velocity means is that, on average (roughly),
the car travelled with a velocity to the right whose
magnitude is m s-1.

(b) Determine the average speed for the car when it

was travelling between positions A position B, you
draw a straight line between the points representing A
and B in the graph.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 14
 Example 2
An object is forced to move along the -axis in such a way that its position at any instant
of time is given by

where is in m and is in s. The position of the particle during this recorded journey is
therefore known at every instant of time.
a) Derive the expression for the instantaneous velocity .
b) For this car’s journey, what is the initial position, and initial velocity, of the object
( t = 0)?
Sol:
c)

b)

By: S. J. C. Masuku 15
 Uniform Velocity
 Uniform velocity is the special case of constant velocity
 In this case, instantaneous velocities are always the same, all
the instantaneous velocities will also equal the average
velocity
 Begin with then
vx 
x x f  xi

x f  xi  v x t
t t
Note: we are plotting
x v
velocity vs. time
x(t)
v(t)
xf vx

xi
0 t 0 t
ti tf

By: S. J. C. Masuku 16
 Average Acceleration
 Changing velocity (non-uniform) means an acceleration is
present.
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
 Acceleration is a vector quantity.
 Acceleration has both magnitude and direction.
 Acceleration has a dimensions of length/time2: [m/s2].
 Definition:
 Average acceleration v v f  vi
aavg  
t t f  ti
 Instantaneous acceleration
v dv d dx d 2 v
a  lim    2
t  0 t dt dt dt dt

By: S. J. C. Masuku 17
 Average Acceleration
Note: we are plotting
 Average acceleration velocity vs. time
v v f  vi
aavg  
t t f  t i

 Velocity as a function of time

v f (t )  vi  aavg t

 It is tempting to call a negative acceleration a “deceleration,”

but note:
 When the sign of the velocity and the acceleration are the same (either
positive or negative), then the speed is increasing
 When the sign of the velocity and the acceleration are in the opposite
directions, the speed is decreasing
 Average acceleration is the slope of the line connecting the
initial and final velocities on a velocity-time graph
By: S. J. C. Masuku 18
 Instantaneous and Uniform Acceleration

 The limit of the average acceleration as the time interval

goes to zero v dv d dx d 2 v
a  lim   
t  0 t dt dt dt dt 2
 When the instantaneous accelerations are always the same,
the acceleration will be uniform. The instantaneous
acceleration will be equal to the average acceleration
 Instantaneous acceleration is the
 slope of the tangent to the curve
 of the velocity-time graph

By: S. J. C. Masuku 19
Acceleration summary
Note that
 The acceleration at any time is the slope of
the - graph at that time (gradient of the
tangent at that point).
 Positive acceleration = velocity increasing
in the positive -axis direction. Here, this is
from start to .
 When the slope of the - graph is a
maximum, acceleration is a maximum.
Here, this happens at .
 When the slope of the - graph is Zero, the
acceleration is Zero. Here, this is true at .
 Negative acceleration = velocity decreasing
in the positive x direction, Here, this is from
to the end of the journey.
By: S. J. C. Masuku 20
 Example 3

(a) An object moving leftward along the x-axis has a velocity of m/s. It then slows down
to m/s within a time interval of s. Determine the average acceleration of the object.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 21
 Relationship between Acceleration and
Velocity (First Stage)

 Velocity and acceleration are in the same

direction
 Acceleration is uniform (blue arrows
maintain the same length)
 Velocity is increasing (red arrows are
getting longer)
v f (t )  vi  at
 Positive velocity and positive
acceleration

By: S. J. C. Masuku 22
 Relationship between Acceleration and
Velocity (Second Stage)
 Uniform velocity (shown by red
arrows maintaining the same size)
 Acceleration equals zero
v f (t )  vi  at

By: S. J. C. Masuku 23
 Relationship between Acceleration and Velocity
(Third Stage)

 Acceleration and velocity are in opposite

directions
 Acceleration is uniform (blue arrows
maintain the same length)
 Velocity is decreasing (red arrows are
getting shorter) v f (t )  vi  at
 Velocity is positive and acceleration is
negative

Acceleration and velocity are in opposite directions when the object is slowing down, as
acceleration represents the rate of change of velocity, which can be in the opposite
24
direction to the velocity vector.
 Kinematic Variables: x, v, a
 Position is a function of time: x  x (t )
 Velocity is the rate of change of position.
 Acceleration is the rate of change of
velocity. x dx v dv
v  lim  a  lim 
t  0 t dt t 0 t dt

d d
dt dt
 Position Velocity Acceleration
 Graphical relationship between x, v, and a
 This same plot can apply to an elevator that is
initially stationary, then moves upward, and then
stops. Plot v and a as a function of time.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 25
Special Case: Motion with Uniform
Acceleration (our typical case)
 Acceleration is a constant
 Kinematic Equations
(which we will derive in a
moment)
v  v0  at
1
x  v t  (v0  v)t
2
x  v0t  12 at 2

2
v  v0  2ax
2

By: S. J. C. Masuku 26
 Derivation of the Equation (1)
 Given initial conditions:
 a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0

 Start with definition of average acceleration:

v v  v0 v  v0 v  v0
aavg     a
t t  t0 t 0 t

 We immediately get the first equation

v  v0  at
 Shows velocity as a function of acceleration and time
 Use when you don’t know v and not asked to find the
displacement

By: S. J. C. Masuku 27
 Derivation of the Equation (2)
 Given initial conditions:
 a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0
 Start with definition of average velocity:
x  x0 x
vavg  
t t

 Since velocity changes at a constant rate, we have

1
x  vavg t  (v0  v)t
2

 Gives displacement as a function of velocity and time

 Use when you don’t know the displacement and aren’t asked
for the acceleration

By: S. J. C. Masuku 28
 Derivation of the Equation (3)
 Given initial conditions:
a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0

 Start with the two just-derived equations:

1
v  v0  at x  vavg t  (v0  v)t
2

 We have
1 1 1 2
x  (v0  v)t  (v0  v0  at )t x  x  x0  v0t  at
2 2 2

 Gives displacement as a function of all three quantities: time, initial velocity

and acceleration
 Use when you don’t know the displacement and aren’t asked to find the final
velocity

By: S. J. C. Masuku 29
 Derivation of the Equation (4)
 Given initial conditions:
a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0
 Rearrange the definition of average acceleration
 v v  v0 , to find the time v  v0
aavg   a t
t t a
 Use it to eliminate t in the second equation:
, rearrange to get
2
1 1 v 2  v0
x  (v0  v)t  (v  v0 )(v  v0 ) 
2 2a 2a
2 2
v  v0  2ax  v0  2a ( x  x0 )
2

 Gives velocity as a function of acceleration and displacement

 Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked for the time
By: S. J. C. Masuku 30
 Problem-Solving Hints
 Read the problem
 Draw a diagram
 Choose a coordinate system, label initial and final points, indicate a
positive direction for velocities and accelerations

 Label all quantities, be sure all the units are consistent

 Convert if necessary v  v0  at
 Choose the appropriate kinematic equation x  v0t  12 at 2
 Solve for the unknowns 2
 You may have to solve two equations for two unknowns v 2  v0  2ax
 Check your results
By: S. J. C. Masuku 31
 Problem 1
 An airplane has a lift-off speed of 30 m/s after a take-
off run of 300 m, what minimum constant
acceleration?

v  v0  at
2
x  v0t  12 at 2 v 2  v0  2ax

 What is the corresponding take-off time?

v  v0  at x  v0t  12 at 2 2
v 2  v0  2ax

By: S. J. C. Masuku 32
Free Fall Acceleration
y  Earth gravity provides a constant
acceleration. Most important case
of constant acceleration.
 Free-fall acceleration is
independent of mass.
 Magnitude: |a| = g = 9.8 m/s2
 Direction: always downward, so ag
is negative if we define “up” as
positive,
a = -g = -9.8 m/s2
 Try to pick origin so that xi = 0

By: S. J. C. Masuku 33
 Kinematics equations along y-axis
The equations of motion for this Note that:
constant acceleration motion become  You must always identify the position of your -
axis origin is (). This is often selected
according to convenience and usually, the
starting position of the motion is taken as .
 Acceleration of free fall is always m/s2
 When an object is moving upwards, it will be
slowing down. Recall that in 1D motion, the
acceleration and velocity have opposite signs.
Using our chosen sign convention, acceleration
v yf  v yi  a y t y f  yi  v0t  12 a y t 2 here is negative while velocity is positive.
 When the object is moving downwards, it will
v yf 2  v yi 2  2a y ( y f  yi ) be speeding up. Recall that in 1D motion, the
acceleration and velocity have the same sign.
Using our chosen sign convention, acceleration
y f  yi  12 (v yf  v yi )t here is negative while velocity is negative.

y f  yi  v yf t  12 a y t 2
By: S. J. C. Masuku 34
 Example 4
A stone thrown from the top of a building is given an initial velocity of m s -1
straight upward. The stone is launched m above the ground, and the stone just
misses the edge of the roof on its way down. Determine:
a) the time at which the stone reaches its maximum height.

b) the maximum height of the stone.

Let us first determine the displacement of the stone.

Since the stone started motion at position , its final position is m which
m above the initial height. The maximum height reached is m.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 35
 Example 4 cont.…
c) the velocity of the stone when it returns to the height from which it was thrown.

 Notice that the displacement is Zero when the stone returns to the same
height it started.
 The stone is falling downwards therefore, the velocity of the stone is
negative.
 The velocity of the stone is downwards.
 Notice that the velocity when the stone passes its original height is the
same in magnitude but opposite in direction to the initial velocity.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 36
 Area under - and - graphs
The area enclosed by an - curve and the time axis from an initial time to a final time is
the change in velocity during that time interval as shown in the graph below.

So, if the time interval is from a time to a final time , the change in velocity is

If the area is made of simple shapes, you may calculate the area of shape using areas of
regular shapes but if the shape is complicated, you may need to know as a function of
so that you can integrate.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 37
 Area under - and - graphs
The graph below shows a - graph for the motion of a particle.

The area enclosed by an - curve and the time axis from an initial time to a final
time is the displacement during that portion of the journey.

Areas above the time axis are positive while areas below the time axis are
negative. If there are some positive areas and some negative areas, the net area
gives you the net displacement.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 38
 Summary
• This is the simplest type of motion
• It lays the groundwork for more complex motion
• Kinematic variables in one dimension
– Position x(t) m L
– Velocity v(t) m/s L/T
– Acceleration a(t) m/s2 L/T2
– All depend on time
– All are vectors: magnitude and direction vector:
• Equations for motion with
v constant
v0  at acceleration: missing quantities
– x – x0
x  x0  v0t  12 at
2

– 2 2
v  v0  2a ( x  x0 ) v

– x  x0  12 (v  v0 )t
t
x  x0  vt  12 at 2
– a
– v0
By: S. J. C. Masuku 39
End of 1 D kinematics

By: S. J. C. Masuku 40
 Motion in Two Dimensions
 Reminder of vectors and vector algebra
 Displacement and position in 2-D
 Average and instantaneous velocity in 2-D
 Average and instantaneous acceleration in 2-D
 Projectile motion
 Uniform circular motion
 Relative velocity*

By: S. J. C. Masuku 41
 Vector and its components
 The components are the legs
of the right triangle whose   
A  Ax  Ay
hypotenuse is A

 Ax  A cos( )  Ay 
 A  A2  A2 and   tan  
1
 Ay  A sin(x ) y  Ax 

 A   A 2  A 2
 x y
Or,
 Ay 1 
Ay 
tan    or   tan  

 Ax  Ax 

By: S. J. C. Masuku 42
 Vector Algebra
  
 Which diagram can represent r  r2  r1 ?

 A) B) 
r 
r

r1 r1 
   r1
r2 r2
C)  D) 

r 
r
r1 r1
 
r2 r2

By: S. J. C. Masuku 43
 Motion in two dimensions
• Kinematic variables in one dimension
– Position: x(t) m
– Velocity: v(t) m/s
x
– Acceleration: a(t) m/s2

• Kinematic variables in three dimensions

y
– Position: r(t )  xiˆ  yˆj  zkˆ m
– Velocity: v(t )  v iˆ  v ˆj  v kˆ
x y z
m/s  j
a (t )  a x iˆ  a y ˆj  a z kˆ i
– Acceleration: m/s2
x
k
• All are vectors: have direction and magnitudes z

By: S. J. C. Masuku 44
 Position and Displacement
 In one dimension
x  x2 (t 2 )  x1 (t1 )
x1 (t1) = - 3.0 m, x2 (t2) = + 1.0 m
  
Δx = +1.0 m + 3.0 m = +4.0 m r  r2  r1

 In two dimensions
 Position: the position of an object is

described by its position vector r (t ) --



always points to particle from origin.

 Displacement:   
r  r2  r1

r  ( x2iˆ  y2 ˆj )  ( x1iˆ  y1 ˆj )
 ( x2  x1 )iˆ  ( y2  y1 ) ˆj
 xiˆ  yˆj
By: S. J. C. Masuku 45
 Average & Instantaneous Velocity

 Average velocity  r
vavg 
t
 x ˆ y ˆ
vavg  i j  vavg , x iˆ  vavg , y ˆj
t t
 Instantaneous velocity
 
  r dr
v  lim vavg  lim 
t 0 t  0 t dt


 dr dx ˆ dy ˆ
v  i j  v x iˆ  v y ˆj
dt dt dt

 v is tangent to the path in x-y graph;

By: S. J. C. Masuku 46
 Motion of a Turtle

A turtle starts at the origin and moves with the speed of

v0=10 cm/s in the direction of 25° to the horizontal.
(a) Find the coordinates of a turtle 10 seconds
later.
(b) How far did the turtle walk in 10 seconds?
By: S. J. C. Masuku 47
 Motion of a Turtle
Notice, you can solve the
equations independently for the
horizontal (x) and vertical (y)
components of motion and then
combine them!
  
v0  v x  v y
 X components:
v0 x  v0 cos 25  9.06 cm/s x  v0 x t  90.6 cm
 Y components:
v0 y  v0 sin 25  4.23 cm/s y  v0 y t  42.3 cm
 Distance from the origin:
d  x 2  y 2  100.0 cm

By: S. J. C. Masuku 48
 Average & Instantaneous Acceleration

 Average acceleration  v
aavg 
t
 v v y
aavg  x iˆ  ˆj  aavg , x iˆ  aavg , y ˆj
t t

 Instantaneous acceleration

 

v dv

 dv dv x ˆ dv y ˆ
a  lim aavg  lim
t 0 t 0 t

dt
a  i j  a x iˆ  a y ˆj
dt dt dt

 The magnitude of the velocity (the speed) can change

 The direction of the velocity can change, even though the magnitude
is constant
 Both the magnitude and the direction can change

By: S. J. C. Masuku 49
 Summary in two dimension

 Position r (t )  xiˆ  yˆj

 r x ˆ y ˆ
vavg   i j  vavg , x iˆ  vavg , y ˆj
 Average velocity t t t
dx dy
 Instantaneous velocity v x  v y 
dt dt
 
 r dr dx ˆ dy ˆ
v (t )  lim   i j  v x iˆ  v y ˆj
t 0 t dt dt dt
dv x d 2 x dv y
d2y
 Acceleration ax   2 ay   2
dt dt dt dt
 
 v dv dv x ˆ dv y ˆ
a (t )  lim   i j  a x iˆ  a y ˆj
t  0 t
   dt dt dt
 r (t), v ( t ), and a (t ) are not necessarily same direction.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 50
 Motion in two dimensions
 Motions in each dimension are independent components
 Constant acceleration equations
      12
v  v0  at r  r  v0t  2 at
 Constant acceleration equations hold in each dimension

v x  v0 x  a x t v y  v0 y  a y t
x  x0  v0 x t  12 a x t 2 y  y0  v0 y t  12 a y t 2
2 2
v x  v0 x  2a x ( x  x0 ) 2 2
v y  v0 y  2a y ( y  y0 )
 t = 0 beginning of the process;

 a  a xiˆ  a y ˆj where ax and ay are constant;
 Initial velocity v0  v0 xiˆ  v0 y ˆj initial displacementr0  x0iˆ  y0 ˆj
;

By: S. J. C. Masuku 51
 Hints for solving problems
 Define coordinate system. Make sketch showing axes, origin.
 List known quantities. Find v0x , v0y , ax , ay , etc. Show initial conditions
on sketch.
 List equations of motion to see which ones to use.
 Time t is the same for x and y directions.
x0 = x(t = 0), y0 = y(t = 0), v0x = vx(t = 0), v0y = vy(t = 0).
 Have an axis point along the direction of a if it is constant.

v x  v0 x  a x t v y  v0 y  a y t
x  x0  v0 x t  12 a x t 2 y  y0  v0 y t  12 a y t 2
2 2
v x  v0 x  2a x ( x  x0 ) 2 2
v y  v0 y  2a y ( y  y0 )

By: S. J. C. Masuku 52
 Projectile Motion
 2-D problem and define a coordinate system:
x- horizontal, y- vertical (up +)
 Try to pick x0 = 0, y0 = 0 at t = 0
 Horizontal motion + Vertical motion
 Horizontal: ax = 0 , constant velocity motion
 Vertical: ay = -g = -9.8 m/s2, v0y = 0
 Equations:
Horizontal Vertical
v x  v0 x  a x t v y  v0 y  a y t
y f  yi  viyt  12 gt 2

x  x0  v0 x t  a x t
1 2 y  y0  v0 y t  12 a y t 2
2

2 2
v x  v0 x  2a x ( x  x0 ) 2 2
v y  v0 y  2a y ( y  y0 )
By: S. J. C. Masuku 53
 Projectile Motion
 X and Y motions happen independently, so we
can treat them separately
v x  v0 x v y  v0 y  gt
x  x0  v0 x t y  y0  v0 y t  12 gt 2
Horizontal Vertical
 Try to pick x0 = 0, y0 = 0 at t = 0
 Horizontal motion + Vertical motion
 Horizontal: ax = 0 , constant velocity motion
 Vertical: ay = -g = -9.8 m/s2
 x and y are connected by time t
 y(x) is a parabola

By: S. J. C. Masuku 54
 Projectile Motion
 2-D problem and define a coordinate system.
 Horizontal: ax = 0 and vertical: ay = -g.
 Try to pick x0 = 0, y0 = 0 at t = 0.
 Velocity initial conditions:
 v0 can have x, y components. v0 x  v0 cos 0
 v0x is constant usually.
 v0y changes continuously. v0 x  v0 sin  0
 Equations:
Horizontal
Vertical
v x  v0 x v y  v0 y  gt
x  x0  v0 x t y  y0  v0 y t  12 gt 2

By: S. J. C. Masuku 55
Trajectory of Projectile Motion
 Initial conditions (t = 0): x0 = 0, y0 = 0
v0x = v0 cosθ0 and v0y = v0 sinθ0
 Horizontal motion:
x
x  0  v0 x t  t
v0 x
 Vertical motion:
y  0  v0 y t  12 gt 2
2
 x  g x 
y  v0 y     
 v0 x  2  v0 x 
g
y  x tan  0  x 2

2v0 cos 2  0
2

 Parabola;
 θ0 = 0 and θ0 = 90 ?

By: S. J. C. Masuku 56
 What is R and h ?
 Initial conditions (t = 0): x0 = 0, y0 = 0
v0x = v0 cosθ0 and v0x = v0 sinθ0, then
h
x  0  v0 x t 0  0  v0 y t  12 gt 2
2v0 y 2v0 sin  0
t 
g g
2v cos  0 v0 sin  0 v0 sin 2 0
2
R  x  x0  v0 x t  0 
g g
2
2 t g  t 
h  y  y0  v0 y t h  12 gt h  v0 y   
2 2 2
Horizontal Vertical
v0 sin 2  0
2
h v y  v0 y  gt
2g v x  v0 x
2v0 y
v y  v0 y  gt  v0 y  g  v0 y x  x0  v0 x t y  y0  v0 y t  12 gt 2
g

By: S. J. C. Masuku 57
 Projectile Motion
at Various Initial Angles

 Complementary values
v0 sin 2
2
of the initial angle result R
in the same range g
 The heights will be
different
 The maximum range
occurs at a projection
angle of 45o

By: S. J. C. Masuku 58
 Uniform circular motion

Constant speed, or, Motion along a circle:

constant magnitude of velocity Changing direction of velocity

By: S. J. C. Masuku 59
 Circular Motion: Observations

 Object moving along a curved

path with constant speed
 Magnitude of velocity: same
 Direction of velocity: changing
 Velocity: changing
 Acceleration is NOT zero!
 Net force acting on the object is
NOT zero
 “Centripetal force”  
Fnet  ma
By: S. J. C. Masuku 60
 Uniform Circular Motion
 Centripetal acceleration vi
v r vr Δv = vf - vi
 so, v  vf
v r r vi y B
A
v r v v 2 vf
  Δr
t t r r R
ri rf
v v 2
ar  
t r O
x
 Direction: Centripetal

By: S. J. C. Masuku 61
 Uniform Circular Motion
 Velocity:  
 Magnitude: constant v ac  v
 The direction of the velocity is
tangent to the circle ac 
v2
r

 Acceleration: v2
 Magnitude: ac 
r
 directed toward the center of the
circle of motion
 Period:
 time interval required for one
complete revolution of the particle 2r
T
v

By: S. J. C. Masuku 62
 Summary
Position 

r (t )  xiˆ  yˆj

 r x ˆ y ˆ
 Average velocity vavg   i j  vavg , x iˆ  vavg , y ˆj
t t t
dx dy
 Instantaneous velocity vx  vy 
dt dt
 
 r dr dx ˆ dy ˆ
v (t )  lim   i j  v x iˆ  v y ˆj
t 0 t dt dt dt

 Acceleration dv x d 2 x dv y
d2y
ax   2 ay   2
dt dt dt dt
 
 v dv dv x ˆ dv y ˆ
a (t )  lim   i j  a x iˆ  a y ˆj
t  0 t dt dt dt
 are not necessarily in the same direction.
  
r (t), v (t ), and a (t )

By: S. J. C. Masuku 63
 Summary
 If a particle moves with constant acceleration a, motion
equations are    12
rf  ri  vi t  2 at

rf  x f iˆ  y f ˆj  ( xi  v xi t  12 a xi t 2 )iˆ  ( yi  v yi t  12 a yi t 2 ) ˆj
  
v  vi  at


v f (t )  v fxiˆ  v fy ˆj  (vix  a x t )iˆ  (viy  a y t ) ˆj
 Projectile motion is one type of 2-D motion under constant
acceleration, where ax = 0, ay = -g.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 64
 The Laws of Motion
 Newton’s first law
 Force
 Mass
 Newton’s second law
 Newton’s third law
 Examples

Isaac Newton’s work represents one of the

greatest contributions to science ever made
by an individual.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 65
 Dynamics
 Describes the relationship between the motion of
objects in our everyday world and the forces acting
on them
 Language of Dynamics
 Force: The measure of interaction between two objects
(pull or push). It is a vector quantity – it has a magnitude
and direction
 Mass: The measure of how difficult it is to change object’s
velocity (sluggishness or inertia of the object)

By: S. J. C. Masuku 66
 Forces
 The measure of interaction
between two objects (pull or push)
 Vector quantity: has magnitude
and direction
 May be a contact force or a field
force
 Contact forces result from physical
contact between two objects
 Field forces act between disconnected
objects
Also called “action at a distance”

By: S. J. C. Masuku 67
 Forces
 Gravitational Force
 Archimedes Force
 Friction Force
 Tension Force
 Spring Force
 Normal Force

By: S. J. C. Masuku 68
 Vector Nature of Force
 Vector force: has magnitude and direction
 Net Force: a resultant force acting on object
    
Fnet   F  F1  F2  F3  ......
 You must use the rules of vector addition to obtain the
net force on an object


| F | F12  F22  2.24 N
F1
  tan 1 ( )  26.6
F2

By: S. J. C. Masuku 69
 Newton’s First Law
 An object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion
tends to stay in motion with the same speed and in the same
direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force
 An object at rest remains at rest as long as no net force acts on it
 An object moving with constant velocity continues to move with the
same speed and in the same direction (the same velocity) as long as
no net force acts on it
 “Keep on doing what it is doing”

By: S. J. C. Masuku 70
 Newton’s First Law
 An object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion
tends to stay in motion with the same speed and in the same
direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force

 When forces are balanced, the acceleration of the object is zero

 Object at rest: v = 0 and a = 0
 Object in motion: v  0 and a = 0

 The net force is defined as the vector sum of all the external
forces exerted on the object. If the net force is zero, forces are
balanced. When forces are balances, the object can be
stationary, or move with constant velocity.

By: S. J. C. Masuku 71
 Mass and Inertia
 Every object continues in its state of rest, or uniform motion in
a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that state by
unbalanced forces impressed upon it
 Inertia is a property of objects
 to resist changes is motion!
 Mass is a measure of the
 amount of inertia.
 Mass is a measure of the resistance of an object to changes in
its velocity
 Mass is an inherent property of an object
 Scalar quantity and SI unit: kg

By: S. J. C. Masuku 72
Newton’s Second Law
The acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the net force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass

 

a
F 
Fnet
m m

  
Fnet   F  ma

By: S. J. C. Masuku 73
 Units of Force
 Newton’s second law:   
Fnet   F  ma

 SI unit of force is a Newton (N)

kg m
1 N 1
s2

 US Customary unit of force is a pound (lb)

– 1 N = 0.225 lb
– Weight, also measured in lbs. is a force (mass x
acceleration). What is the acceleration in that case?

By: S. J. C. Masuku 74
 More about Newton’s 2nd Law
 You must be certain about which body we are applying it
to
 Fnet must be the vector sum of all the forces that act on that
body
 Only forces that act on that body are to be included in the
vector sum
 Net force component along an
 axis gives rise to the acceleration
 along that same axis
Fnet , x  ma x

Fnet , y  ma y
By: S. J. C. Masuku 75
 Sample Problem
 One or two forces act on a puck that moves over frictionless ice along an x
axis, in one-dimensional motion. The puck's mass is m = 0.20 kg. Forces
F1 and F2 and are directed along the x axis and have magnitudes F1 = 4.0
N and F2 = 2.0 N. Force F3 is directed at angle q = 30° and has magnitude
F3 = 1.0 N. In each situation, what is the acceleration of the puck?
a ) F1  max
F1 4.0 N
ax    20 m/s 2
m 0.2 kg
b) F1  F2  max
F1  F2 4.0 N  2.0 N
ax    10 m/s 2
m 0.2 kg

c) F3, x  F2  max F3, x  F3 cos 

F3 cos   F2 1.0 N cos 30  2.0 N
Fnet , x  ma x ax 
m

0.2 kg
 5.7 m/s 2

By: S. J. C. Masuku 76
 Gravitational Force
 Gravitational force is a vector
 Expressed by Newton’s Law of Universal
Gravitation: F  G mM
g
R2
 G – gravitational constant
 M – mass of the Earth
 m – mass of an object
 R – radius of the Earth
 Direction: pointing downward

By: S. J. C. Masuku 77
 Weight
 The magnitude of the gravitational force acting on an
object of mass m near the Earth’s surface is called the
weight w of the object: w = mg
 g can also be found from the Law of Universal
Gravitation
 Weight has a unit of N
mM
Fg  G
R2
w  Fg  mg
M
g  G 2  9.8 m/s 2
R
 Weight depends upon location R = 6,400 km
By: S. J. C. Masuku 78
 Normal Force

 Force from a solid surface

which keeps object from
falling through w  Fg  mg

 Direction: always
perpendicular to the
surface
 Magnitude: depends on N  Fg  ma y
situation N  mg  ma y
N  mg

By: S. J. C. Masuku 79
 Tension Force: T
 A taut rope exerts forces
on whatever holds its
ends
 Direction: always along
the cord (rope, cable,
string ……) and away
T1
from the object
 Magnitude: depend on T1 = T = T2
T2
situation

By: S. J. C. Masuku 80
 Newton’s Third Law
 If object 1 and object 2 interact, the force
exerted by object 1 on object 2 is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the force
exerted by object 2 on object 1

 
Fon A   Fon B

 Equivalent to saying a single isolated force cannot exist

By: S. J. C. Masuku 81
 Newton’s Third Law cont.
 F12 may be called the
action force and F21
the reaction force
 Actually, either force
can be the action or
the reaction force
 The action and
reaction forces act on
different objects

By: S. J. C. Masuku 82
Some Action-Reaction Pairs

mM
Fg  G
R2

GM
Fg  mg  m 2
R
mM
Fg  G Gm
R2 Fg  Ma  M
R2

By: S. J. C. Masuku 83
 Free Body Diagram
 The most important step in
solving problems involving
F hand on book
Newton’s Laws is to draw the
free body diagram
 Be sure to include only the
forces acting on the object of
interest
 Include any field forces acting F Earth on book
on the object
 Do not assume the normal
force equals the weight

By: S. J. C. Masuku 84
 Hints for Problem-Solving
 Read the problem carefully at least once
 Draw a picture of the system, identify the object of primary interest, and
indicate forces with arrows
 Label each force in the picture in a way that will bring to mind what
physical quantity the label stands for (e.g., T for tension)
 Draw a free-body diagram of the object of interest, based on the labeled
picture. If additional objects are involved, draw separate free-body diagram
for them
 Choose a convenient coordinate system for each object
 Apply Newton’s second law. The x- and y-components of Newton second
law should be taken from the vector equation and written individually. This
often results in two equations and two unknowns
 Solve for the desired unknown quantity, and substitute the numbers

Fnet , x  ma x Fnet , y  ma y
By: S. J. C. Masuku 85
 Objects in Equilibrium
 Objects that are either at rest or moving with constant
velocity are said to be in equilibrium
 Acceleration of an object can be modeled as zero:
 Mathematically, the net force acting on the object is
zero a  0
 Equivalent to the set of component equations given by

F  0

F x 0 F y 0

By: S. J. C. Masuku 86
 Equilibrium, Example 1
 A lamp is suspended from a chain of negligible mass
 The forces acting on the lamp are
 the downward force of gravity
 the upward tension in the chain
 Applying equilibrium gives

F y  0  T  Fg  0  T  Fg

By: S. J. C. Masuku 87
 Equilibrium, Example 2
 A traffic light weighing 100 N hangs from a vertical cable tied
to two other cables that are fastened to a support. The upper
cables make angles of 37° and 53° with the horizontal. Find
the tension in each of the three cables.
 Conceptualize the traffic light
 Assume cables don’t break
 Nothing is moving
 Categorize as an equilibrium problem
 No movement, so acceleration is zero
 Model as an object in equilibrium

F x 0 F y 0

By: S. J. C. Masuku 88
 Equilibrium, Example 2
 Need 2 free-body diagrams
 Apply equilibrium equation to light

F y  0  T3  Fg  0 F y  0  T3  Fg  0
T3  Fg  100 N
T3  Fg  100 N
 Apply equilibrium equations to knot

F x  T1x  T2 x  T1 cos 37   T2 cos 53  0

F y  T1 y  T2 y  T3 y
 T1 sin 37   T2 sin 53  100 N  0
 cos 37  
T2  T1   
  1.33T1
 cos 53 
T1  60 N T2  1.33T1  80 N

By: S. J. C. Masuku 89
 Accelerating Objects
 If an object that can be modeled as a particle
experiences an acceleration, there must be a nonzero
net force acting on it
 Draw a free-body diagram
 Apply Newton’s Second Law in component form
 
 F  ma
F x  max F y  ma y

By: S. J. C. Masuku 90
 Accelerating Objects, Example 1
 A man weighs himself with a scale in an elevator. While the
elevator is at rest, he measures a weight of 800 N.
 What weight does the scale read if the elevator accelerates upward at
2.0 m/s2? a = 2.0 m/s2
 What weight does the scale read if the elevator accelerates downward at
2.0 m/s2? a = - 2.0 m/s2

 Upward: F y  N  mg  ma N
N  mg  ma  m( g  a ) N  80(2.0  9.8)  624 N
N
w 800 N
m 
g 9.8 m/s 2
 80 N N  mg
 Downward:
N  80(2.0  9.8)  624 N
mg mg
N  mg
By: S. J. C. Masuku 91