Syntax 2020

English Morphology and Syntax
Associate Professor Renata Šamo, Ph.D.

Acknowledgements
This presentation is largely based on and contains
material quoted verbatim from:
Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew (2018). An Introduction to
English Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press. 2nd ed.
Miller, Jim (2013). An Introduction to English Syntax.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 2nd ed.
SYNTAX
• how words are put together to build phrases
e.g. blue pencils
• how phrases are put together to build bigger phrases or
clauses
e.g. my old blue pencil, when I was born …
• how clauses are put together to build sentences
e.g. It snowed when I was born.
Humans need syntax to compose complex messages;
messages convey meaning.
Syntax based on meaning or not?

Lesson 1 : Heads and modifiers
• words are grouped in phrases
e.g. the large dog (NP); barked loudly (VP)
• in each phrase one word is the HEAD (dog, barked),
which controls the other word,
word the MODIFIER(S)
• one head may have more than one modifier, e.g. the &
large, loudly or may have no modifier, e.g. (She) smiles
(cheerfully).
• a phrase = a group of interrelated words
• This relationship between heads and their modifiers,
modification, is fundamental in syntax!!!
syntax
e.g. Ann is sitting at her table.
*The Ann is sitting at her/his table.
Lesson 1 : Heads and modifiers
e.g. * Pilot was drinking in his cabin.
The pilot was drinking in his cabin.
Pilots fly planes carefully.
• nouns are not the only controlling words, also adjectives
and prepositions,
e.g. very big, bigger
* more big
e.g. books about plants (N – N), rich in minerals (Adj – N),
aimed at the target (V – N) / (They sat) round the table.
(She painted) with this paintbrush. (I’ve bought the
present) for the children.
Lesson 1 : Heads, modifiers and meaning
• the head does not only control the other words in

a phrase
• the head also conveys a central piece of

information
e.g. (the) expensive books
drove (driving in general), drove a Volvo (driving a
particular make of car)
• the narrowing of meaning in the examples above
Lesson 1 : Heads, modifiers and meaning
• the head may have several modifiers
e.g. bought a present for Jeannie in Jenners last

Tuesday
(bought = the head + 4 modifiers)
• again the narrowing of meaning at work!

Lesson 1 : Complements and adjuncts
• obligatory modifiers (complements) & optional modifiers (adjuncts,
pomoćni dodatak)
e.g. bought a present for Jeannie in Jenners last Tuesday
My mother bought a present for Jeannie in Jenners last Tuesday.
The verb BOUGHT controls all the other phrases in

the clause, and is the head of the clause;
it requires a human noun on its left, a noun to its

right to refer to smth concrete);
My mother bought a present for Jeannie in Jenners last Tuesday.
The verb BOUGHT controls all the other phrases in

the clause, and is the head of the clause;
it requires a human noun on its left, a noun to its

right to refer to smth concrete;
It allows, but does not require, time and place

expressions!!!
• obligatory phrases • optional phrases

• called • called
COMPLEMENTS ADJUNCTS
• Lat. ‘to fill’ • Lat. ‘to add, to join’
• to fill out the verb, • something adjoined
noun, etc. • not part of the
• to complement its essential structure of
syntax but also its clauses
meaning
Lesson 1 : Clauses
• another syntactic unit (apart from the phrase) is
the clause
• needed to talk coherently about the relationships
between verbs and different types of phrase
e.g. My mother bought a present for Jeannie in
Jenners last Tuesday.
• a clause at least includes a verb and its

complements
• also, a verb + its complements + its adjuncts
Lesson 1: Clauses
• The cat shot into the kitchen on Sunday
morning carrying a dead mouse.
• Some verbs require directional phrases
(e.g. where the cat moved to)
• Directional phrases in general are
complements but not always obligatory!
(e.g. The cat pranced into the kitchen
carrying a dead mouse.
Lesson 1 : Verbs, complements and the order of phrases
• The relationships between heads and modifiers

are called dependencies or dependency
relations (heads control modifiers, so modifiers
are dependent on heads).
• heads + modifiers = phrases
• VERBS are treated as heads of both phrases

and clauses!!!
Lesson 1 : Verbs, complements and the order of phrases
E.g.
(a) Maisie drove her car from Morningside to Leith on
Wednesday. = objects (what) and directional phrases
(from…to) are complements
(b) On Wednesday Maisie drove her car from Morningside to

Leith. = the time phrase (when) at the beginning or end of
the clause (see above), this (the) adjunct does not come
between the head and any of the complements (see
below, though)
© Maisie drove her car on Wednesday from Morningside to

Leith. (at least sounds strange)
Lesson 1 : To sum up
• a head and at least one modifier in every phrase

• a head, the verb, in every clause
• two types of modifiers: complements (obligatory)
and adjuncts (optional)
• heads and complements are typically adjacent

(next to each other)
• where a head has two or more complements,
adjuncts usually used before or after the
sequence of head and complements
Tasks 1 & 2
• Consider the modifiers of the verbs (exclude the grammatical subjects

right now). Which of them are obligatory / optional? Which of them are
complements / adjuncts?
1. Mr Bennet thrust the letter into Elizabeth’s hands.

2. They organised a picnic at Box Hill in the summer.
3. Mr Elton delivered a charade to Emma for a friend.
4. Mr Darcy met the Gardiners at Pemberley one afternoon.
5. Emma dismayed Mr Knightley with her plans for Harriet.
6. Frank sent a piano to Jane Fairfax.
7. The porter placed the letter on the secretary’s desk.
8. Harriet imagined that Mr Elton would propose to her.
9. We were expecting the worst that day in 1968.
10. The report details the proposals for reconstruction.
• Sitting at her desk
• Sitting –HEAD
• At her desk – at –HEAD
• Her desk – desk -HEAD
Tasks 1 & 2
• Pick out four examples of heads and modifiers in each of these

sentences. You’ll notice that modifiers may themselves contain
heads (e.g. sitting (the head) is modified by at her desk in the
phrase sitting at her desk; at (the head) is modified by the phrase
her desk; finally desk (the head) is modified by her):
1. I ate breakfast in a vast Viennese ballroom with a sprung wooden

floor and dadoes dripping with recently reapplied gilt.
2. The lift is a giant baroque birdcage, entered through a rainforest
of potted palms.
3. On the wall nearby, newly dusted, is a framed diploma from the
1932 Ideal Homes Exhibition, signed by the mayor of East Ham.
Lesson 2: Constituent structure
• dependencies (heads as related to modifiers) is
fundamental in syntax
• heads and modifiers tend to be adjacent (used
next to each other), e.g. house in:
• the house, modified by the definite article (the)

• the splendid house, modified by the and the
adjective
• the house on the hilltop, modified by the and the
prepositional phrase
• the house which they built out of reinforced
concrete, modified by the and the relative clause
But also:
• The modifiers of prepositions follow their head
prepositions:
(a) Peter shimmered into the room. = the preposition into
followed by the room
(b) *Into Peter shimmered the room. = impossible in
English
© Into the room shimmered Peter. = a possible,
correct structure
• This is possible in some declarative clauses!

But also:
• A preposition can be separated from its noun phrase
modifier:
(a) Which room did Peter shimmer into?

(b) Into which room did Peter shimmer? = also acceptable
in formal writing
• This is possible in some (interrogative) clauses!

What about verbs and their modifiers?
• the order of modifiers in a neutral clause (where no

particular word or phrase is emphasised) :
e.g. Barbara handed the results to Alan on Tuesday.

Barbara (the subject NP) handed the results (the
direct object NP) to Alan (the indirect object PP) on
Tuesday (the PP, time).
In English, the subject typically precedes the verb, and the

direct object typically follows the verb!
Tests for phrases
• How are words arranged/ordered in phrases (and phrases into
clauses)?
(1) TRANSPOSITION
e.g. Peter shimmered into the room.
Into the room Peter shimmered.
(into the room is moved or transposed to the front of the clause)
• also possible in phrases without prepositions,

e.g. Barbara handed the results to Alan on Tuesday.
The results Barbara handed to Alan on Tuesday … (are
not good).
Words moved from one position to another, but no other changes!
Tests for phrases
• How are words arranged/ordered in phrases (and phrases into
clauses)?
(1) TRANSPOSITION
e.g. The pupils in this English class gave cakes to Mary every Friday
(no PP as below).
Cakes were given to Mary every Friday by the pupils in this English
class.
(here the complement of the preposition by)
.
(more than just a group of words is moved or transposed from one
position to another)
• Two different constructions, the pupils in this English class & by

the pupils in this English class!
(1) TRANSPOSITION
• also in:
(a) This parcel is very / astonishingly heavy. = the adjectival phrase
as the complement of is
(b) This very heavy parcel was delivered yesterday. = the modifier of
parcel
© Very heavy, this parcel! = at the beginning of the spoken

construction
(d) What this parcel is is very heavy. = also the complement of is, but in
a special emphatic construction
(2) SUBSTITUTION
• a single word can substitute for a number of words hanging
together as a phrase, e.g.
(a) Barbara handed the rather intriguing results of the latest

examination to Alan on Tuesday.
(b) Barbara handed them to Alan on Tuesday.

Or
(a) The pupils in this English class gave cakes to Mary every Friday.
(b) David gave cakes to Mary every Friday.
© Cakes were given to Mary every Friday by the pupils in this English
class.
(d) Cakes were given to Mary every Friday by David.
(2) SUBSTITUTION
• also in, e.g.
(a) This parcel is very heavy.

(b) (b) The parcel is astonishingly and frighteningly heavy.
© The parcel is heavy.
(one word heavy (adj) substitutes for the sequences very heavy &
astonishingly and frighteningly heavy)
• Also so-substitution is possible!!, e.g.

• (A) This parcel is very heavy. (B) No, it’s not. (A) It is so.
(straightforward/direct so-substitution = one sequence is just
removed and the empty slot is filled with so) vs. This parcel is
very heavy and so is this small packet. (indirect so-substitution)
(2) SUBSTITUTION
• Also so-substitution is possible!!, e.g.
(A) This parcel is very heavy. (B) No, it’s not. (A) It is so.
(straightforward/direct so-substitution = one sequence is just
removed and the empty slot is filled with so)
versus
This parcel is very heavy and so is this small packet. (indirect so-
substitution = so is also moved to the front of the clause)
(2) SUBSTITUTION
• Other examples with sequences introduced by prepositions:
Mary is conversing in the lounge. Mary is conversing there.
Mum is coming to Mr Chalky’s school tomorrow. Mum is coming here
tomorrow.
The cat trotted into the kitchen. The cat trotted in the kitchen. The cat
trotted in.
The mouse jumped out of the box. The mouse jumped out the box. The
mouse jumped out.
(in & out as single words that substitute for the longer phrases)
but
Cheese is good. That French cheese with the blue veins is good.
(a single word can be replaced by a sequence of words!!)
(3) Ellipsis
(a) The terrier attacked the burglar. The terrier savaged the burglar’s
ankles.= two separate clauses
(b) The terrier attacked the burglar and the terrier savaged the burglar’s
ankles. = two clauses are conjoined by and; two clauses and one
sentence, each beginning the same
© The terrier attacked the burglar and [ ] savaged the burglar’s ankles.
= the missing words are ellipted here; [to substitute with she, he]
Lesson 2: Phrases: words and slots
• phrases = the sequences of more than one word (?!)
e.g.
(a) Barbara handed the results to Alan on Tuesday.
(b) Barbara handed them to Alan on Tuesday.
Barbara & them are also treated as phrases in syntactic analysis!

So, what is the phrase then?
A slot in which one or more words can occur,
occur or in which other phrases
can occur!!,
occur
e.g. them = the results of the maths exam sat just before Christmas
(them as one word is then just an accident here)
Barbara = Mary’s hard-working colleague
Lesson 2: Phrases: words and slots
• also in
e.g.
e.g. to Alan = her colleague who was collating the examination marks
on Tuesday = on day he forgot his coat and got absolutely drenched
SO
• A slot can be occupied by two or more words – a phrase in

the everyday sense!!!
Lesson 2: Coordination
• words of the same type can be coordinated, joined by
special words (and, or)
• phrases of the same type can be coordinated
• and clauses of the same type
e.g.
John and his energetic wife visited us twice last year.
(John = a one-word phrase; his energetic wife = a three-word phrase;
despite their length, these two phrases are coordinated )
also
the bright (one-word adjective phrase) and incredibly sharp (two-word
adj phrase) air over Doubtful Found
Why is bright here a phrase? Just because of this coordination!!

Lesson 2: To conclude!!!
(1) The tests of transposition and substitution apply inside clauses;
ellipsis, as well (but it takes two or more clauses since it deletes
phrases repeated from one clause to the following one;
(2) The types can be different: the noun phrase (NP), the
prepositional phrase (PP), the adjectival/adjective phrase (AdjP),
the adverbial phrase (AdvP) according to what word class is the
head, e.g. her friend, to Alan, sorry about the mistake, quickly and
unbelievably quickly; also the verb phrase (VP) – later);
(3) phrases can contain other phrases, e.g. to her colleague is PP

with a NP within, also to Alan
e.g. study these examples very carefully!!
the rather intriguing results of the latest examination (NP),
results = a head modified by the, rather intriguing & of the latest

examination
rather intriguing = an adjective phrase with intriguing (adj) as the head
modified by rather
of the latest examination (PP) = preposition of as the head
the examination (NP), the latest examination (NP)
e.g. study these examples very carefully!!
• Phrases can also contain clauses!
the room which Peter shimmered into (NP),

room = the head modified by the relative clause (which …)
In other words, phrases and clauses can be indefinitely extended!!, e.g.
I know … that he knows that I know …

(4) Words are constituents of phrases, phrases are constituents of

bigger phrases or clauses, clauses are constituents of sentences;
the arrangement of words into phrases and so on is called a
constituent structure;
(5) Signals for the organisation of clauses into sentences in written

texts, for instance, punctuation marks; in speech, there is no such
signalling for the structure of a phrase or clause.
Lesson 2: To sum up
• heads and their modifiers are usually grouped together inside clauses
• head and its modifiers are ordered differently in different languages
• three tests to see whether a sequence of words forms a phrase:
transposition, substitution, ellipsis
• In syntax, the term ‘phrase’ applies to single words and to sequence
of words since
• a single noun occupies a slot in which a phrase could occur
• phrases can be extended indefinitely
• different types of phrase have different types of head
• phrases occur in clauses but clauses can also occur inside phrases
Tasks 1 & 2
• What type of phrase (transposition, substitution, coordination,

ellipsis) is applied in these sentences and according to which
criteria?
1. I put the letter into the top drawer of the bureau.

2. I put the letter there.
3. Where I put the letter was into the top drawer of the bureau.
4. Into the top drawer of the bureau I put the letter.
5. It was into the top drawer of the bureau that I put the letter.
6. I put the letter either there or into the top drawer of the bureau.
7. I put into the top drawer of the bureau the letter, my wallet and an
old watch.
Tasks 1 & 2
• Analyse these examples into phrases:

e.g. Susan (NP) always drinks black coffee (VP).
black coffee (NP), black (Adjective Phrase)
1. The pedestrians offended by the dangerously selfish action of the

driver threatened to throw him into the harbour.
2. To throw him into the harbour was illegal but an understandable
reaction by the visitors on the quayside.
3. Brazil’s tropical forests are amazingly rich in flora and fauna..
4. The person sitting at the window is my wife.
Tasks 1 & 2
• What type of phrase (transposition, substitution, coordination,

ellipsis) is applied in these sentences and according to which
criteria?
1. I put the letter into the top drawer of the bureau.

2. I put the letter there. substitution
3. Where I put the letter was into the top drawer of the bureau.
transposition (the different construction)
4. Into the top drawer of the bureau I put the letter. transposition (the
same construction)
5. It was into the top drawer of the bureau that I put the letter.
transposition (the different construction)
6. I put the letter either there or into the top drawer of the bureau.
coordination (with the single word there)
7. I put into the top drawer of the bureau the letter, my wallet and an
old watch. transposition (the same construction)
Tasks 1 & 2

1. The pedestrians offended by the dangerously selfish action of the

driver threatened to throw him into the harbour.
2. To throw him into the harbour was illegal but an understandable
reaction by the visitors on the quayside.
3. Brazil’s tropical forests are amazingly rich in flora and fauna.
4. The person sitting at the window is my wife.
Tasks 1 & 2

The pedestrians offended by the dangerously selfish action of the driver (NP)
threatened to throw him into the harbour (VP).
offended by the dangerously selfish action of the driver (Participle Phrase)
by the dangerously selfish action of the driver (Prepositional Phrase, PP)
the dangerously selfish action of the driver (NP)
dangerously selfish (Adjective Phrase); of the driver (PP); the driver (NP)
Tasks 1 & 2
The pedestrians offended by the dangerously selfish action of the driver (NP) threatened
to throw him into the harbour (VP).
threatened to throw him into the harbour (VP)
to throw him into the harbour (Infinitive Phrase); him (NP)
into the harbour (PP)
the harbour (NP)

Tasks 1 & 2
To throw him into the harbour (Infinitive Phrase) was illegal but an understandable
reaction by the visitors on the quayside (VP).
him (NP), into the harbour (PP), the harbour (NP)
illegal (Adjective Phrase)
an understandable reaction by the visitors on the quayside (NP), understandable

(Adjective Phrase)
by the visitors on the quayside (PP)
the visitors on the quayside (NP); on the quayside (PP); the quayside (NP)
Tasks 1 & 2

Brazil’s tropical forests (NP) are amazingly rich in flora and fauna (VP).
Brazil’s (NP; possessive), tropical (Adjective Phrase)
amazingly rich in flora and fauna (Adjective Phrase)
in flora and fauna (PP), flora and fauna (NP, two conjoined (and) NP)
Tasks 1 & 2

The person sitting at the window (NP) is my wife (VP).
sitting at the window (Participle Phrase)
at the window (PP), the window (NP)
my wife (NP)
Lesson 3: Constructions
• this concept is relevant to all areas of grammar!!

• e.g. field (one stem), but fielded (the ball) & fielder (in
cricket) (one stem, and the suffix)
• e.g. educational (one stem and two suffixes), educate-;
educate
-ion, -al
• e.g. overlook (one prefix and one stem)
• when we analyse constructions, our focus is on the
smaller blocks!!! (what sort & what order)
• e.g. *edfield, *house the into, *The girls was swimming.
Lesson 3: Constructions
• these three constructions are not equivalent in
meaning:
e.g. 1 our new colleague’s car
the car of our new colleague
a car of our new colleague = (s)he has got more
than one car
• a different choice of words = differences in
meaning:
e.g. 2 the idea of leaving (is funny)
leaving’s idea (is funny) (unacceptable)
Lesson 3: Different constructions (in clauses) &
different meanings
• constructions are not isolated structures but fit

into a general network (basic and complex
clauses as related to each other);
• connections between different constructions

and different speech acts, e.g. questions,
commands, requests, etc;
• different constructions with different functions

are needed us to create different texts, e.g.
lectures, poems, news reports, etc.
different meanings
• constructions are not isolated structures but fit

into a general network (basic and complex
clauses as related to each others);
• (1) a. The wealthy young man bought that

piano for his secret fiancé.
(the completed event = the past simple tense)
b. Did the wealthy young man buy that
piano for his secret fiancé?
(both are semantically related, see the major
(coloured) lexical items)
different meanings
(1) a. The wealthy young man bought that piano

for his secret fiancé.
• Besides, in both wealthy & young modify man;
secret modifies fiancé; buy has the
complements the wealthy young man, that
piano & his secret fiancé!!
bought & buy, two forms of the same lexical item!
both share past tense (did)
different meanings
(1) a. The wealthy young man bought that piano

for his secret fiancé.
• In addition, the speaker declares that the event
happened in 1a, so it is a declarative
construction
• but in 1b he asks if it happened, so it is an
interrogative construction, also the
interrogative yes-no construction!
different meanings
• to compare with these examples:
(2) a. Who bought that piano for his secret fiancé?

b. What did the wealthy young man buy
for his secret fiancé?
c. Who did the wealthy young man buy that piano
for?
• the interrogative wh constructions
• one of the participants here is unknown (in 1a-
b all the three participants are specified)!!!
different meanings
(2) a. Someone (WHO) bought a piano for his secret fiancé.
b. The wealthy young man bought something (WHAT) for
his secret fiancé.
xxx
The wealthy young man bought that piano for his secret
fiancé.
The wealthy young man bought his secret fiancé that piano.
Which participant has already been mentioned?
(the piano or the fiancé), the semantic perspective
The wealthy young man (NP) bought (V) his secret fiancé
(NP) that piano (NP), the syntactic perspective
different meanings
fiancé.
• an example of the oblique object construction
• an oblique object = any NP preceded by a preposition!!
preposition
The wealthy young man bought his secret fiancé that piano.
• an example of the double object construction (with two
objects)
• so, different constructions have different functions,
roles in texts
• read pg. 32 with the given example more carefully
different meanings
fiancé.
• an example not only of a declarative clause, but also of
an active clause (who is active in a given situation)
That piano was bought for his secret fiancé by the wealthy
young man.
• an example of a passive clause (who suffers an action

is emphasised here)
different meanings
That piano was bought for his secret fiancé by the wealthy
young man.
(the long passive construction, frequent in formal writing)
To note here:
here
• was + bought (not just bought);
• the NP (the passive participant) that piano in the initial
position;
• the NP the wealthy young man (the buyer) can be omitted:
That piano was bought for his secret fiancé.
(the short passive construction)
• passive clauses can be interrogative yes-no & wh !!

different meanings
(I don’t like the plum brandy) – the port I just love.
• a neutral clause to pass the judgement on the plum brandy

• the direct object (the port) at the front of the second clause,
• which immediately follows the plum brandy – to highlight the contrast
• I just love the port (a neutral main clause) changed into the port I just
love
• the latter is called the preposed-theme construction!!!
• In real language,
language longer clauses and sentences are not isolated but
incorporated into longer texts! (but they are analysed in isolation)
• constructions are part of system of structures

Lesson 3: Types of constructions
• any single clause realises several different constructions

simultaneously;
simultaneously
• So far, active vs. passive; declarative vs. interrogative;

oblique vs. double object
• e.g. The wealthy young man bought that piano for his
secret fiancé.
(oblique object, active, declarative)

• non-copula constructions,
(Latin copula = link, connection)
e.g. Fiona always sleeps well, but last night she didn’t sleep
well. Why couldn’t she sleep well then?
• copula constructions (BE, the copula or link verb),

verb
e.g. Fiona is very happy. (NP copula AP)

Fiona is the best student. (NP copula NP)
Fiona is in London. (NP copula PP)
COPULA constructions can • NON-COPULA

be: constructions can be:
• declarative; • declarative;
• interrogative • interrogative
• imperative • Imperative
• passives
• oblique or double object


verb
e.g. Fiona is very happy. (copula, ascriptive)

Fiona is the best student. (copula, equative)
Fiona is in London. (copula, locative)
• clauses used to ascribe a property to an entity (happiness

is ascribed to Fiona);
• clauses used to state that one entity is identical with
another entity (Fiona = the best student, the same, one
person, she is equated to the best student);
• clauses used to state where some entity is located (Fiona
can be found in London, at least now);

verb
e.g. Fiona is very happy. (copula, acriptive)

Fiona is the best student. (copula, equative)
Fiona is in London. (copula, locative)
• these clauses cannot be made passive!
• read page 35 more carefully!!

• e.g. The wealthy young man bought that piano for his
secret fiancé.
(non-copula; active, declarative, oblique object)
Other examples:
e.g. Frank bought the piano for Jane.
Jane
[non-copula, active, declarative, oblique object]
e.g. Frank bought Jane the piano.
piano
[non-copula, active, declarative, double object]
e. g. The piano was bought for Jane by Frank.
[non-copula, passive, declarative, oblique object]
The piano Frank bought for Jane.
[non-copula, active, declarative, oblique object, preposed-theme]
Other examples:
e.g. Did Frank buy the piano for Jane?

Jane
[non-copula, active, interrogative yes-no, oblique object]

e.g. Did Frank buy Jane the piano?
[non-copula, active, interrogative yes-no, double object]
e. g. Was the piano bought for Jane by Frank?

[non-copula, passive, interrogative yes-no, oblique object]
The middle (apart from the active and passive constructions):
e.g. This book reads well.
The wool knitted up beautifully.
• Middle clauses contain an active verb that is basically transitive!!
• they can be declarative or interrogative (yes-no & wh)!!

Imperative clauses
e.g. 1 Give me the car keys.
e. g. 2 Someone phone for an ambulance.
• generally, no noun phrase (subject), see example 1!

• even when there is a subject NP (see ex. 2)
• the verb is just the bare verb (stem) (bare = infinitive without to)
Lesson 3: (IN)transitive constructions
(not verbs !!!)
Transitive Intransitive
(require a direct object) (exclude a direct object)
• active clauses • active clauses

• passive clauses
• middle clauses
Existential constructions
e.g. 1 There is a rat in the kitchen.

[copula, existential, declarative]
Is there a rat in the kitchen?

[copula, existential, interrogative yes-no]
What is there in the kitchen?

[copula, existential, interrogative wh]
e. g. 2 There are five students in your office.

Negative constructions
Mrs Elton didn’t admire Emma.
[non-copula, active, declarative, negative]
Mrs Elton wasn’t at home

[copula, active, declarative, negative]
Interrogative and imperative constructions can be negative!!
Didn’t Mrs Elton admire Emma.
[non-copula, active, declarative, negative]
Who didn’t admire Emma?

Don’t open that box!
The non-copula, locative constructions

can be both transitive and intransitive!!
The statue stands in the front garden. (intransitive)

intransitive
His wife’s portrait hangs in the dining room.
We stood the statue in the front garden. (transitive)

transitive
We put the lemon tree in the conservatory.
• Verbs such as stand, sit, and put which require a PP (place)

Lesson 3: Relationships between constructions
• any clause realises several constructions at the same

time → the network
• the active, declarative construction taken as basic
(copula or non-copula), the most common type
• to define the starting point and the path from

construction to construction!!
• Read more about the paths, page 38!

Lesson 3: To sum up!
• phrases combine to produce clauses

• they combine in different orders and the links between
them are marked in various ways
• some clauses have special markers, e.g. did, do, does
for interrogatives
• to signal differences in meaning
• the various syntactic constructions in a given language
form a system
• how the constructions are interconnected in a focus of
syntactic analysis
HW task
Label the following constructions as presented in the example below,
e.g.
Was Admiral Croft given a present by Lady Russell?
(non-copula, passive, interrogative yes-no, oblique object)
• Colonel Brandon read poems to Marianne.

• Mrs Gardiner was Mrs Bennet’s sister.
• Who was Jane Bennet’s suitor?
• Why did Frank Churchill deceive everybody?
• When was Emma scolded by Mr Knightley?
• Wasn’t Mr Knightley much older than Emma?
HW task
Label the following constructions as presented in the example below, e.g.
• Colonel Brandon read poems to Marianne.

(non-copula, active, declarative, transitive, positive, oblique object)
• Mrs Gardiner was Mrs Bennet’s sister.

(copula, declarative, positive, equative)
• Who was Jane Bennet’s suitor?

(copula, wh-interrogative, positive, equative)
• Why did Frank Churchill deceive everybody?

(non-copula, active, wh-interrogative, transitive, positive)
HW task
• When was Emma scolded by Mr Knightley?

(non-copula, passive, interrogative wh-, positive, oblique
object)
• Wasn’t Mr Knightley much older than Emma?

(copula, interrogative yes-no, negative, ascriptive)
Lesson 4: Word Classes
• to denote is used for the relationship between a given

word and the set of entities (to which it can be applied)
• lexical or content words have denotations and include:
nouns, adjectives and adverbs; and
• grammatical or form words do not have denotations and
include: articles, demonstrative adjectives (this/that –
these/those) and auxiliary verbs (be, have)
• modals and prepositions on the borderline between the
two broad categories (We are arriving on Tuesday at 5 pm
vs Press the button above the green light.)
• criteria for word classes: syntactic, morphological, morpho-
syntactic and semantic
Lesson 4: Morphological criterion
• whether a given word allows grammatical

suffixes or not
• the least important criterion
• more relevant to some languages than others
(e.g. Russian and Croatian)
• Tiger – tiger-s – tiger-ish

Lesson 4: Morphological criterion
• English nouns typically take a plural ending

(dogs)
• but some of them do not (sheep, deer), so they
are said to be invariable
Lesson 4: Morpho-syntactic criteria
• these have to do also with inflectional suffixes

• based on Classical Latin and Greek
• English is not so rich in inflections as Russian or
Croatian:
– various case suffixes which signal information about case and
about number
– various verb suffixes carry information about tense, person and
number
• Pas laje. vs Mačka je ogrebala psa. vs Petar je dao kost psu.
Lesson 4: Morpho-syntactic criteria
• English nouns have suffixes for numbers (dog-dogs)

• English verbs have suffixes for tenses (pull, pulls, pulled)
– person is expressed only by the suffix –s added to
verbs in the present tense
• English adjectives have suffixes to signal a greater
quantity of some property (wider) or the greatest quantity
of some property (widest)
• also relevant to linkage (e.g. The tiger is smiling vs
Tigers are smiling)
Lesson 4: Syntactic criteria
• These are the most important!!

• What are the words with which a given word combines?
• What are the types of phrases in which a given word
occurs?
• each noun has its own pattern of occurrence:
• A. The dog stole the turkey.
• B. The children chased the dog.
• C. The cook saved no scraps for the dog.
Lesson 4: Syntactic criteria
• the crucial concept is that of the central and peripheral

members of a class:
• a. a tall building
• b. This building is tall.
• c. a very tall building
• d1. a taller building
• d2. a more beautiful building
• e.g. tall vs unique or woollen or asleep

Lesson 4: Semantic criteria
• What do words mean?

• The analysis uses the ideal of central,
prototypical members of word classes as
opposed to peripheral members
• the semantic criteria as opposed/supplementary
to the formal criteria (morphological, morpho-
syntactic and syntactic)
• words with very different meanings, dog and

anger (= nouns denoting persons, places and
things), share many major syntactic and
morpho-syntactic properties
• The need for both formal and semantic criteria
(e.g. Croatian vs English)
• What do speakers do with words?

• when we produce utterances we perform actions
• speech acts, e.g. making statements, asking
questions, giving commands
• these speech acts are central to human
communication
• other speech acts are not so prominent, for instance,
referring (picking words from the classes of nouns)
and predication (picking words from the classes of
verbs)
• Different speech acts correspond to different words
classes!!
• different word classes denote to different entities, e.g.

nouns to people, places and things; verbs to actions;
adjectives to properties
• so they are defined with regard to the above
• reliable definitions are based on formal criteria
(morphological, morpho-syntactic and syntactic)
• upon identifying formal criteria, the connections between
word classes and meaning can be studied
• also, what speakers do with it – refer, predicate or
assert, or modify.
Lesson 4: HW Tasks 1 & 3
• Exercise 1 (adjectives and verbs) & Exercise 3

(central and peripheral adjectives, pp. 52-53
Lesson 6: Clauses 1
• main and subordinate clauses

E.g. Wickham eloped with Lydia.
Miss Bates chattered on for hours.
• both are main clauses and sentences
• there is a finite verb in each
• finite verbs are marked for tense, person and number
• in each clause the finite verb is accompanied by its complements and
adjuncts
• each clause is marked for aspect, and the aspect can be changed
(Wickham is eloping with Lydia.)
• each clause has mood (statements, facts)
• both allow syntax changes, e.g. With Lydia eloped Wickam (to London)
• both describe situations, their participants carry out actions on patients
• can be the first contribution to a discourse (read pp. 67-69)
Lesson 6: Clauses 1
• main and subordinate clauses

E.g.
Wickham eloped with Lydia.
Miss Bates chattered on for hours.
• both includes a single main clause, but others may

consist of several clauses
• multi-clause sentences can be:
compound and complex
Lesson 6: Clauses 1
Compound sentences
• two or more clauses joined by conjunctions
E.g.
Captain Benwick married Louisa Musgrove and Captain Wentworth

married Anne Elliot.
Henry Crawford loved Fanny but Fanny loved Edmund.
Mr Bingley became tired of Jane or Mr Darcy persuaded Mr Bingley to
go to London.
• all of the clauses above are main clauses

Lesson 6: Clauses 1
Complex sentences
• a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses

• Subordinate clauses:
(a) complement clauses
E.g. Elizabeth regretted that she had met Wickham.

Catherine feared that the Abbey was haunted.
• both subordinate clauses are NP (Elizabeth regretted /her actions/ &

Catherine feared /the General’s temper/)
• both of them complement the verb by a modifier or a clause like
here
• both complement clauses occur to the right of the verbs in the main
clauses, but
Lesson 6: Clauses 1
• complement clauses also occur to the left of the verb in the main
clause, e.g.
That Anne was in conversation with Mr Elliot dismayed Captain
Wentworth.
• [her words] dismayed Captain Wentworth.
• also, complement clauses can modify a noun, e.g. Fanny was
delighted by the idea that she could subscribe to a library.
(the content of the idea = it fills out the meaning of the idea)
• other examples in:
Who thought up the proposal that the committee be abolished?
There was the plan that we would visit Glasgow today but the weather
is terrible.
Scientists have disproved the theory that the moon is made of green
cheese.
Lesson 6: Clauses 1
Subordinate clauses:
(b) relative clauses (modify nouns),
• previously called adjective clauses (adjectives also modify nouns)
• although in English they do not occur in the same position as
adjectives!
E.g.
The cottage which Mrs Dashwood accepted was rather small.

The gentleman who saved Marianne was Willoughby.
The book (which) Marianne was reading contained poems by Cowper.
The building (that) we liked is in Thornton Lacey.
• which, who = relative pronouns but that = conjunction

Lesson 6: Clauses 1
Subordinate clauses:
(c) adverbial clauses (modify not just verbs but whole clauses),
• they are adjuncts (optional constituents in sentences)
• they are optional regardless of a verb in the main clause
• traditionally classified according to their meaning: reason, time,
concession, manner, and condition
E.g.
Because Marianne loved him, she refused to believe that he had deserved her.
When Fanny returned, she found Tom Bertram very ill.
/ As Marianne was running, she fell. / While they were in London, she
looked for him
Although he disliked Mrs Bennet, he married Elizabeth.
Henry changed his plans as the mood took him.
If Emma had left Mr. Hartfield, Mr Woodhouse would have been unhappy.
Lesson 6: Clauses 1
Form and function in subordinate clauses:
• different types of subordinate clauses have different functions:

• verb complement clauses modify verbs, noun complement clauses
and relative clauses modify nouns, adverbial clauses modify other
clauses
• So, the form of clauses is relevant!

relevant
• However, the form can be also misleading, e.g.

We asked when this happened.
(modifies the verb asked = a complement clause)
Can you remember the time when this happened?
(modifies the noun time = a relative clause)
We were in Paris when this happened.
(modifies the clause We were in Paris = and adverbial clause)
Lesson 6: Clauses 1
Complementisers and subordinating conjunctions:
• the words introducing complement and adverbial clauses =

subordinating conjunctions;
• the words such as and & but = coordinating conjunctions (clauses
with the same status)
e.g. Captain B married Louisa and Captain W married Anne.
If Henry loved Fanny and if Fanny loved Edward,
Edward Henry would be unhappy.
• since 1965 complementisers used for all subordinating conjunctions
• a problem with who, whom & which (pronouns but also function as
subordinating conjunctions); called relative pronouns and
complementisers (introduce relative clauses); that is just the latter
and cannot be a pronoun
Lesson 6: Clauses 1
Rules for identifying clauses:
A – If it modifies another clause = an adverbial clause, e.g.

When we sell the house, we’ll leave the furniture.
(it establishes a time for the entire situation of leaving the furniture, so an adv cl of time)
B1 – If it modifies a verb = a complement clause, e.g.

A motorist has reported that the road is blocked by snow ….
(verb complement clauses either subject or object of a clause);
B2 – If it modifies a preposition = a complement clause, e.g.

I am only interested in whether you have a driving licence.
Lesson 6: Clauses 1

C – If it modifies a noun = a relative OR a complement clause:
C1 – If the subordinate clause is introduced by a WH word or by a PP =

a relative clause, e.g.
The Labrador ate all the food which we left on the kitchen table.
Show me the folder in which you stored the documents.
C2 – If the subordinate clause is introduced by THAT = a relative or a

complement clause, e.g.
I like the book that (which)
which you gave me.
We like the idea that the city centre will be pedestrianised.
• Read pp. 68-67!
Lesson 6: Clauses 1

Also important to note:
• relative and complement clauses often follow their head noun or
verb directly, without a complementiser, e.g.
I love the food they cook in the hall of residence.

(a relative clause which modifies the noun)
A motorist has reported the road is blocked at Green Hill.
(a complement clause which modifies the verb)
I am delighted at the idea they might demolish the Appleton Tower.
(a complement clause which modifies the noun)
• relative and complement clauses with no complementiser are called

contact clauses
• three major types of subordinate clauses: complement, relative

and adverbial.
(1) Complement clauses modify either verbs or nouns, can function

as subject or object in a clause, and have that or zero as a
complementiser;
(2) Relative clauses modify nouns, have a WH-word, that or zero as

a complementiser; without a wh complementiser, tiser they lack the
subject or object (also relative clauses introduced by that or zero)
(3) Adverbial clauses modify other clauses, see the rules for
differentiating them easier.
Lesson 6: Tasks
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Main and subordinate clauses
• Read 7.1. pg. 72-73

• We were in Paris when you left.
VS
• The cottage which Mrs Dashwood
accepted is very small.
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Clause and sentence
Anne has just seen Mr Elliot in Bath.
• one main clause, network of dependencies:

• the NP has seen the NP
• also number agreement between the S and the V (has
not have)
• the Present Perfect tense excludes the time adverb,
such as five days ago
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Clause and sentence
Rooke had discovered where Anne stayed.

• the complement clause
• discovered controls this complement clause
Rooke suspected that Mrs Clay planned to run away with

Mr Elliot.
• plan allows the complement clause, but also infinitives
• however, suspect excludes infinitives
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Clause and sentence
Sentences in a paragraph are linked by:
• binders (e.g. thus, in other words, for this reason,

consequently, moreover, nevertheless) OR
• ellipsis of certain portions of a sentence (e.g. I can help

you tomorrow. Sheila can’t (help you tomorrow) OR
• pronouns (e.g. Kerry and Louisa have failed the exam.

Margaret and Sheila are not pleased with them.)
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Clause and sentence
Where do clauses occur in a sentence?
• relative clauses are imbedded in NPs and immediately follow the

head noun (occasional exceptions: I got a jug from India that was
broken), e.g. She is the woman who stole my purse.
purse
• complement clauses that modify verbs function as the S or the O of

verbs, i.e. in slots where the ordinary NPs can occur, e.g.
astonished Mr Elliot / his elder daughter/ His elder daughter
astonished Mr Elliot.
• time adverbs (e.g. yesterday)

yesterday at the beginning or end of a clause;
adverbial clauses usually occur in the same positions, e.g. When
Lydia went there, Mary visited her brother (when Lydia went there).
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Clause and sentence

• other adverbial clauses behave similarly, e.g.
Because the bus drivers were on strike, we
walked to work (because the bus drivers were
on strike).
• If Emma had left him, Mr X would have been

unhappy. → With Emma away, Mr X would have
been unhappy.
(a phrase or a clause?!) = most adverbial clauses
can substitute for adverbial phrases !!)
Lesson 7: To sum up
• we can describe where words occur in phrases, phrases in clauses,

and clauses in sentences, but we cannot predict where sentences
will occur in texts!!
• there are many dependency links between words in phrases /
phrases in clauses;
• there is the occasional dependency link across clause boundaries
but typically none across sentence boundaries (which are better
treated as binders tying small units into a large piece of coherent
text)
• sentences (main clauses = grammatically complete and
semantically independent) as units of discourse into which clauses
are grouped; the clause a unit between phrase and sentence)
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
More on subordinate clauses

e.g.
We heard that Captain Benwick would marry
Louise / that Mary was a hypochondriac / that
Admiral Croft was always accompanied by his
wife.
• three complement clauses (2 active + 1

passive); one is a copula construction
Lesson 7: Clauses 2

e.g.
We heard that Captain Benwick has married
Louise / married Louisa / is marrying Louisa /
might marry Louisa / must have married Louisa.
• Perfect, Simple Past, Present Progressive

Tense, two different modal verbs
• all of them independent of the main clauses
Lesson 7: Clauses 2

However,
• subordinate clauses are subject to a number of

constraints that do not apply to main clauses, e.g.
• main clauses can be declarative, interrogative or
imperative;
• relative clauses, adverbial clauses and most types of
complement clause must have a declarative syntax, the
only exception are …
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
• the only exception are … indirect questions,

e.g. She has asked if he will get back soon.
• no inversion, Will he get back soon?.
But
• The girl wondered who he had received in his library.

(partly declarative, and partly interrogative)
Lesson 7: Clauses 2

Prepositional phrase fronting
e.g.
Into the room came Aunt Norris. = declarative main clause
(pp + main verb + subject np)
She said that into the room came Aunt Norris.=
complement clause
Negative fronting
e.g.
Never had Sir Thomas been so offended.
They realised that never had Sir Thomas been so offended.
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Tag questions
e.g.
Dr Grant usually ate too much rich food, didn’t he?
Dr Grant usually ate too much rich food.= declarative
clause
• tag questions = verbs such as do, does, did, has/have,
can, might (+ n’t) + a personal pronoun)
• They do not occur in subordinate clauses at all!!!

Lesson 7: Clauses 2
• complement clauses are the least subordinate, and allow

preposition fronting, negative fronting, and interrogative
structure (depending on the head verb)!!!
• relative and adverbial clauses are the most subordinate
• how much subordinate adverbial clauses are depends
on their position in sentences
• Read more on pg. 80!

Lesson 7: Clauses 2
• One or more subordinate clauses combine in a main

clause!!
• main clauses allow a wide range of syntactic
constructions, and all the distinctions of aspect, tense
and mood
• however, subordinate clauses allow a smaller range of
syntactic constructions and fewer distinctions of aspect,
tense and mood; there is a hierarchy of subordinate
clauses (complement clauses the least subordinate,
relative and adverbial clauses are the most subordinate)
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Finite and non-finite clauses

e.g.
Henry wanted to marry Fanny.
Fanny regretted talking to Mary.
Mrs Bennet having taken the others upstairs, Mr Bingley proposed to

Jane.
All Mr Collins does is to praise Lady de Bourg.
Lady de Bourg tried to persuade Elizabeth to renounce Mr Darcy.

Lesson 7: Clauses 2

e.g.
Henry wanted to marry Fanny.

Fanny regretted talking to Mary.
• formerly treated as phrases (infinitive & gerund phrase)
• but they could be treated as clauses,

clauses too!!
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Why could they be also treated as clauses?

e.g.
Henry wanted to marry Fanny. (DO)
Fanny regretted talking to Mary. (oblique object)
Mrs Bennet having taken the others upstairs, Mr Bingley

proposed to Jane. (DO) + directional complement
Lesson 7: Clauses 2

• some non-finite clauses have aspect
e.g.
Henry wanted to have married Fanny before Edmund

returned. (Perfect)
To be courting Fanny was a waste of Henry’s time.
(Progressive)
• non-finite constructions have a more limited grammar

than finite ones!! (see pg. 82)
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
• non-finite constructions have a more limited grammar

than finite ones!! (see pg. 91)
e.g. they exclude modal verbs but they do allow some

modality to be signalled:
Fanny regretted having to talk to Aunt Norris (necessity)

Julia and Maria wanted to be allowed to perform a play.
(permission)
Edmund wanted Fanny to be able to ride a horse. (ability)
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
e.g. Henry wanted to marry Fanny.
(Henry = the understood subject of marry) = the traditional

interpretation; it refers to two situations (wanting &
marrying)
The subject of WANT controls the subject of the verb in the

dependent infinitive = the modern interpretation, so
there is a dependency relation between wanted and the
infinitive!! (also the NP Henry controls / determines
another NP, the subject of marry)
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Also,
Fanny loved talking to Mary. (gerund)
(Fanny = the understood subject of talking) = the traditional

interpretation; it refers to two situations (loving & talking)
The subject of LOVE(D) controls the subject of the verb in

the dependent gerund = the modern interpretation, so
there is a dependency relation between loved and the
gerund!! (also the NP Fanny controls / determines
another NP, the subject of talking)
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Lady de Bourg tried to persuade Elizabeth to renounce Mr Darcy.
(one clause but more than one potential situation:
Lady de Bourg tried to do something; Lady de Bourg persuade

Elizabeth and Elizabeth renounce Mr Darcy)
The subject of TRIED controls the subject of the dependent infinitive,

to persuade,
to persuade in turn has a dependent infinitive – to renounce;
the object of persuade, Elizabeth, controls the subject of renounce.
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Therefore,
• main clauses outrank everything else
• subordinate finite clauses outrank non-finite subordinate
clauses
• finite clauses denote situations
• the same is with non-finite clauses, once the understood
subject is supplied
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
What about free participles?

e.g.
Knowing the country well, he took a short cut.

Slamming the door, he ran down the steps.
(read more pg. 84)
• In general, free participles are best treated as non-finite

clauses with only an indirect connection with finite
clauses!
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Types of non-finite clause
INFINITIVE and GERUND non-finite clauses
• the crucial difference lies in the type of clause they modify

• these two are the most common types
• they modify verbs, and can function as S (To see Naples and die is
not my idea of fun. Talking to Maria irritated Fanny.) or O (He
wanted to marry her. She regretted talking to him.)
• infinitive ones are marked by to or for …to (e.g. All I want is for you
to win.), and gerund ones by the suffix –ing
• both are nominals = occur where ordinary NPs occur
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
Types of non-finite clause
FREE PARTICIPLE non-finite clauses
• unlike gerunds, they modify whole clauses, e.g.
Standing at the window, Ann noticed Mrs Clay and Mr Elliot. (at
the same time)
Jumping up, he dashed out of the room. (before)
Mrs Bennet having taken the others upstairs, Mr Bigley proposed to
Jane. (before)
Lesson 7: Clauses 2
• With Emma away, Mr Woodhouse was

unhappy.
• Prepositional phrase or non-finite clause?
• With Emma being away/Emma being

away
Lesson 7: To sum up
• traditionally treated as infinitive and gerund phrases are now

treated as clauses, since:
(a) they express propositions;

(b) include a verb + complement and adjuncts (like finite
clauses)
• the different types of non-finite clauses are distinguished mainly

by
what type of finite clause they modify !!!
Tasks
• Task 1: Pick out the non-finite clauses here. Say

what they are (infinitive, gerund, or a free
participle). Say what the understood subject is.
1. She tried to learn two languages simultaneously to a high level

inside three months.
2. I hate travelling to Glasgow by the M8 at this time of year.
3. Having looked at all the exercises very carefully, we concluded
that the marking had been too lenient.
4. The girls noticed Mr Darcy riding up to the front door.
Tasks
• Task 2. Describe the syntax of these indirect
questions (specify the type of question and whether
the word order is direct or indirect.
• John asked me whether I was ready yet.

• I can’t remember now what was the reason for it.
• The question arises as to what language they should be
literate in.
• I can’t remember now what was the reason for it.

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English Morphology and Syntax

Associate Professor Renata Šamo, Ph.D.

Miller, Jim (2013). An Introduction to English Syntax.

Syntax based on meaning or not?

• the head does not only control the other words in

• the head also conveys a central piece of

• the head may have several modifiers

e.g. bought a present for Jeannie in Jenners last

• again the narrowing of meaning at work!

My mother bought a present for Jeannie in Jenners last Tuesday.

The verb BOUGHT controls all the other phrases in

it requires a human noun on its left, a noun to its

My mother bought a present for Jeannie in Jenners last Tuesday.

The verb BOUGHT controls all the other phrases in

it requires a human noun on its left, a noun to its

It allows, but does not require, time and place

• obligatory phrases • optional phrases

• a clause at least includes a verb and its

• The relationships between heads and modifiers

• heads + modifiers = phrases

• VERBS are treated as heads of both phrases

(b) On Wednesday Maisie drove her car from Morningside to

© Maisie drove her car on Wednesday from Morningside to

• a head and at least one modifier in every phrase

• heads and complements are typically adjacent

• Consider the modifiers of the verbs (exclude the grammatical subjects

1. Mr Bennet thrust the letter into Elizabeth’s hands.

• Pick out four examples of heads and modifiers in each of these

1. I ate breakfast in a vast Viennese ballroom with a sprung wooden

• the house, modified by the definite article (the)

• This is possible in some declarative clauses!

(a) Which room did Peter shimmer into?

• This is possible in some (interrogative) clauses!

• the order of modifiers in a neutral clause (where no

e.g. Barbara handed the results to Alan on Tuesday.

In English, the subject typically precedes the verb, and the

• also possible in phrases without prepositions,

• Two different constructions, the pupils in this English class & by

© Very heavy, this parcel! = at the beginning of the spoken

(a) Barbara handed the rather intriguing results of the latest

(b) Barbara handed them to Alan on Tuesday.

(a) This parcel is very heavy.

• Also so-substitution is possible!!, e.g.

• Also so-substitution is possible!!, e.g.

(b) Barbara handed them to Alan on Tuesday.

Barbara & them are also treated as phrases in syntactic analysis!

• A slot can be occupied by two or more words – a phrase in

Why is bright here a phrase? Just because of this coordination!!

(3) phrases can contain other phrases, e.g. to her colleague is PP

the rather intriguing results of the latest examination (NP),

results = a head modified by the, rather intriguing & of the latest

• Phrases can also contain clauses!

the room which Peter shimmered into (NP),

In other words, phrases and clauses can be indefinitely extended!!, e.g.

I know … that he knows that I know …

(4) Words are constituents of phrases, phrases are constituents of

(5) Signals for the organisation of clauses into sentences in written

• What type of phrase (transposition, substitution, coordination,