Human Anatomy & Physiology for Clinical Nurse

UNIT-1:
Introduction to Human Anatomy &
Physiology
 1.1 What are Anatomy and Physiology?

• Anatomy: the word anatomy is derived from a

Greek word “Anatome” meaning to cut up.
• It is the study of structures that make up the
body and how those structures relate with
each other.
• The study of anatomy includes many sub
specialties. These are Gross anatomy,
Microscopic anatomy, Developmental
anatomy and Embryology.
 1. Gross anatomy studies body structure with out microscope.

• Gross anatomy(macroscopic anatomy), is separated

into 5 major divisions:
1. Surface anatomy describes surface forms and marks
2. Regional anatomy describes the organization of specific areas of
the body such as the head or hand.
3. Systemic anatomy describes groups of organs that function
together for a single purpose.
4. Developmental anatomy describes the structural changes in an
organism from fertilized egg to maturity. Embryology is the
anatomical study of early development.
5. Clinical anatomy describes various medical specialties, including
medical anatomy (changes that occur during illness), and
radiographic anatomy (structures that appear in scans and x-rays).
DEVELOPMENTAL PERIODS
It is customary to divide human development into prenatal
(before birth) and postnatal (after birth) periods.
 Prenatal period: before birth
38 weeks from conception to birth (average) “fetal” age
 Pre embryonic period.
Initiated by fertilization of ovum
 Embryonic” period: first 8 weeks, All major organs
formed
 “Fetal” period: remaining 30 weeks
o Organs grow larger and become more complex
and differentiated
 Post natal: after birth
o Important changes, in addition to growth, occur after
birth (e.g., development of teeth and female breasts).
 2. Microscopic anatomy
• Microscopic anatomy ; requires the use of
microscope to study tissues that form the
various organs of the body.
• Microscopic anatomy is divided into two major
divisions:
1. Cytology, the study of cells and their
structures.
2. Histology, the study of tissues and their
structures
 Physiology:
• Physiology: the word physiology derived from a Greek word for
study of nature.
• It is the study of how the body and its part work or function.
• Hence, Anatomy and physiology are studied together to give
students a full appreciation and understanding of human body.
Physiology has many specialties.
• The 4 basic divisions are:
1. Cell physiology, including chemical and molecular processes
within and between cells.
2. Special physiology, the study of specific organs such as the heart.
3. Systemic physiology, the cooperative functions of all the organs in
an organ system.
4. Pathological physiology, the effects of diseases on organs and
organ systems.
 Homeostasis
• When structure and function are coordinated the
body achieves a relative stability of its internal
environment called homeostasis / staying the same.
• Although the external environmental changes
constantly, the internal environment of a healthy
body remains the same within normal limits.
maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the
internal environment.
• Some of the functions controlled by homeostasis
mechanisms are blood pressure, BT, breathing and
HR.
 Anatomical terminologies
• Are accepted ways of naming to describe
positions & relating body parts bases on the
internationally accepted anatomical
nomenclature.
• Anatomical position:
• Person standing erect with his/her head, eye,
toes directing for ward & the upper limb by
the sides whose palm facing interiorly.
 Anatomical planes & views
• Four imaginary line passing through the body in anatomical position
1. Median plane
• Vertical plane passing longitudinally from front to back which divide the
body in to left & right parts.
2. Sagital plane
• Vertical plane parallel to the median named after sagital suture.
a. Midsagital plane
• Sagital plane passing through the median plane (divide the body in to equal
left & right)
b. Para sagital plane
• Sagital plane that divide the body in to left & right, but not passing through
median plane
3. Coronal plane
• Plane that divide the body in to anterior & posterior.
4. Horizontal plane (transverse plane)
• Divide the body in to superior & inferior portion.
 Section of the body

• It is important to know the the plane of the sectoins ,so

you can understand the anatomical relationship one part
to another .
-Slices of the body along these planes are known as
sections & correspondingly named as:
1. Longitudinal section-Section taken parallel to the long
axis.
2. Transverse section- Citing the body or parts of the body
perpendicular to the long axis.
3. Oblique section -A slant section deviated from one plane.
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 3 Directional Planes
or Midsagittal Plane

or Dorsal

or Horizontal Plane

or Ventral

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CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

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 Terms of relations & positions
• Superior (cranial)-Near to the head
• Inferior (causal)-Near to the feet
• Anterior (ventral)-Near to the front
• Posterior (dorsal)-Near to the back
Supine vs prone

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 Terms of comparisons
• Proximalnear the trunk or origin
• Distal  farther from the trunk or point of origin.
• Medial  near the medial plane.
• Lateral  farther the medial plane
• Superficial  near to the surface
• Deep  farther from the surface.
• Central  near to or toward the center.
• Periphery  farther (away from the surface.
• External  toward or in the exterior.
• Internal  toward or in the interior
• Parietal  pertaining the external wall of the body.
• Visceral  pertaining to the covering of the organ.
• Ipilateral  on the same side.
• Contra lateral  on different (opposite) side.
Shoulder – point of reference

Elbow – proximal (nearer, closer)

Wrist – distal (further)

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 Bilaterial vs unilateral

• Bilaterial vs unilateral
• bilateral:refers to structures those have left
and right members.eg.ears,eye,kidney etc
Unilateral:refers to structures those occur only
on one side of the body.
• Eg liver,spleen

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 Terms of Laterality
• bilateral Paired structures having right and left members
• unilateral OCCURING ONLY ON ONE SIDE
• Ipsilateral means occurring on the same side of the body
• Contralateral means occurring on the opposite side of
the body; the right hand is contralateral to the left hand.
• The last 2 directional terms are:
Contralateral – on the opposite side
Ipsilateral – on the same side
• Example: My appendix is ipsilateral to my
ascending colon, but it is contralateral to my
descending colon. 19
 Terms movement
• Flexion  bending or decreasing the angle between body parts.
• Extension straightening or increasing the angle between body parts.
• Abduction  moving away from the median plane in the coronal plane
• Adduction  moving to wards the median plane in coronal plane.
• Rotation  moving around the long axis.
• Circumduction  circular movement combining flexion, extension, abduction &
adduction.
• Eversion  moving the sole of the foot away from the median plane
• Inversion moving the solve of the foot to ward the median plane.
• Supination rotating the fore arm & hand laterally, so that the palm faces
anteriorly.
• Pronation rotating the fore arm & hand medially so that the palm faces
posteriorly.
• protraction: moving forward
• Retraction :backward along a surface
• Opposition  movement by which the first digit (thumb) pad is brought to another
digit pad.
• Reposition  movement of first digit or thumb from the position of opposition to
its anatomical position.
Abduction vs adduction Extension vs flexion

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Flexion Extension

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Hyperextension

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Medial vs lateral rotation Abduction, Adduction &
Circumduction

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Supination vs pronation
Special Movements
1). Supination

Movement of the radius around the

ulna. palm faces up
2). Pronation
Movement of the radius around the
ulna. palm faces down

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Inversion vs Eversion
Inversion, Sole of the foot turns
medially

Eversion, Sole of the foot turns

laterally.

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Protraction, Nonangular anterior motion along the
transverse plane. Jutting the jaw out
6). Retraction, Nonangular posterior motion along the
transverse plane. Pulling the jaw back

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Elevation, Lifting a body part superiorly
Shrugging shoulders closing the mouth.
8). Depression Moving a body part inferiorly
Opening the mouth.
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Opposition, Movement of the thumb in relation to other
digits.

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 BODY CAVITIES
• Spaces within the body that contains internal
organs & fluid are known as
body cavities.

VENTRAL DORSAL

VERTEBRAL
CANAL
ABDOMENO- CRANIAL
THORACIC PELVIC CAVITY 30
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 1. Antirior /ventral cavity
I. Thoracic CAVITY
1. Pleural cavities :The area which houses the two lungs.
• The membrane that cover the pleural cavity is called pleural.
• The pleural membrane have two layers
• visceral- cover directly the lungs
• Parietal- covers the wall of the thoracic cavity (pleural cavity.
2. Mediastinum cavity
• The cavity between the two lungs
• This houses- the– heart , Great vessels , Trachea , Oesophagus,
Thoracic duct & Thymus gland
3. The pericardial cavity: Houses the heart
• The membrane that cover the heart is known as pericardium.
1. Have two layers- visceral – cover directly the heart.
2. Parietal- covers the wall of pericardial cavity.
 2. Abdominopelvic
1. abdominal cavity- called peritoneal cavity contains the stomach,
spleen, liver, gall bladder, pancreas, and the intestines
2. pelvic cavity--contains lower part of the digestive system
(rectum), urinary bladder, and the internal reproductive organs
of the female
• The membrane that cover the abdomino pelvic cavity is known
as- peritoneum. Have two layers-
i. visceral Reflects or directly covers the organs of the
abdominopelvic cavity
ii. Parietal peritoneum- covers the wall of the abdominopelvic
cavity.
• The thoracic cavity & abdomino pelvic cavity is separated by a
dome shaped muscle diaphragm.
 II. Dorsal (posterior) Cavities
1. cranial cavity--houses the brain
2. spinal (vertebral) cavity--contains the spinal cord
 Other body cavity
• Oral: commonly called the mouth, contains teeth and
tongue
• Nasal: posterior to the nose, part of the respiratory
system passageways
• Orbital: house the eyes
• Middle Ear: medial to the eardrums

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 MEMBRANES-
MEMBRANES- flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of the body.
1.EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES-layer of ET and underlying CT
A. MUCOUS MEMBRANE (MUCOSA)-lines a body cavity that opens directly
to the outside (digestive, respiratory etc.)
B. CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE- the skin
C. SEROUS MEMBRANES (serosa)-lines a body cavity that does not open
directly to the outside and covers organs in the cavity
-consist thin layers of areolar CT covered by mesothelium
1. Pleura is serous membrane of the thoracic cavity
a. Parietal pleura lines the cavity
b. Visceral pleura covers organs
c. Pericardium is special visceral serous membrane that
covers the heart
2. Peritoneum is the serous membrane of the
abdominopelvic cavity
a. Parietal peritoeum lines the cavity
b. Visceral peritoneum covers organs
 2.Connective tissue membranes
A, SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES -line the cavities of freely
movable joints. These contain no epithelium-composed of
areolar CT with elastic fibers and fat. They secrete synovial
fluid which lubricates the joint and nourished the cartilage.
Synovial membranes also form:
Bursae -cushioning sacs
Tendon sheaths-ease movement
B. The meninges
are three connective tissue membranes that lie just external
to CNS organs
Duramatter, arachnoid and piamater
 Abdominal Quadrant
• N.B: The abdominopelvic cavity divide in to nine
smaller regions or simply four quadrants for
study & diagnostics
• The abdominopelvic cavity may be divided more
simply in to quadrants, i.e,
1. Right upper quadrants (RUQ)
2. Left upper quadrants (LUQ)
3. Right lower quadrants (RLQ)
4. Left lower quadrants (LLQ)
 Abdominal region
• The nine regions are:-
1. Left hypochondriac
2. Right hypochondriac
3. Left lumbar
4. Right lumbar
5. Hypo gastric
6. Left iliac
7. Right iliac
8. Epi gastric
9. Umbilical
Abdominal Quadrant and region
 Levels of Organization

N.B: Level of organization

•chemical level (atom, molecular)  cells  tissues  organs  organ
system  organism. 40
 11 Organ systems are interconnected
• The following slides sumarize the 11 organ
systems of the human body.
• Figures on the following slides shows 12
systems because the reproductive system is
divided into male and female systems.
• Sexual differences in the reproductive system
also affect our hormones, which are part of
the endocrine system.

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 The lowest level of organization is the chemical level, which
composed of

• Atomic level  composed of C, H, O2, N, P & S

these combined together to form
• Molecular level  compound level i.e. –
carbohydrates, protein, Fat, Water, which are
essential element for the arise of cells
Cell Structure
& Function
 CELL
• Cells- are the basic structural & functional unit of an organism.
• The smallest unit of an organism having capable of caring out the
process associated with life.
• Adult human being is an aggregation of trillion of cells.
 The basic functions of the cells
• To obtain nutrients & O2 from the surrounding environment to the
cells.
• Perform various chemical rxns that use nutrients & O2 to provide
energy for cells as follow.
• Food + O2  CO2 + H2O + Energy (ATP)
• Elimination of wastes  ex CO2
• Synthesis of protein
 Component of Cell
• The different substance that make up the cells are called protoplasm.
• The protoplasm, composed of mainly of five basic substances. i.e-
• Water, Electrolytes, Protein, Lipids & Carbohydrates
 Water:- The principal fluid medium of the cells.
• Present most cells except in fat cells and 70 to 80%
 Electrolyte (ion):- the most important ions in the cells are potassium,
magnesium, phosphate, sulphate, bicarbonate & smaller quantities of
sodium & chloride & calcium.
 Protein:- Next to water the most abundant substance in most cells.
• Consists of 10 to 20% of the cells mass
• May be divided as structural & functional protein
 Lipids- substances with common properties that dissolve in fast
• Specially important lipids are phospholipids & cholesterol.
 Carbohydrate:- play a major role in nutrition of cells  energy
requirement.
The three major parts of the cells are:

1. The plasma or cell membrane

2. The cytoplasm
3. The nucleus
 Plasma/cell membrane
• Its basic structure is a lipid bilayer, which is a thin semi
permeable, double-layered film of lipids-each layer only one
molecule thick-that is continuous over the entire cell
surface.
 Functions: -
• Separate the cytoplasm inside a cell from extra cellular fluid.
• maintains the integrity of the cell
• Separate cell from one another
• Provide an abundant surface on which chemical reaction
can occur.
• Regulate the passage of materials in to and out of cells. It
also let some things in and keeps others out. The quality
selective permeability
 Movement across-cell membrane
• Movements a cross membrane takes place in two ways. These are passive and active
movements.
• Passive uses energy whereas active movement consumes energy in the form of ATP.

A. Passive movement
1. Simple diffusion, the random movements of molecules from area of high concentration to
the area of low concentration. Example air in alveoli of lung
2. Facilitated diffusion, larger molecules, which are not soluble in lipid need protein channel to
pass through the plasma membrane. No direct energy needed. Example: -Amino acid passes
through the cell membrane.
3. Osmosis, a special type of diffusion referring to the passage of water through a selectively
permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to lower water
concentration.
4. Filtration, small molecules pass through selectively permeable membrane in response to
force of pressure. Example: - filtration in the kidney in the process of urine formation.
B. Active movements across membranes
• Substances move through a selectively permeable membrane from areas of low concentration
on side of a membrane to an area of higher concentration on the other side.
• This is against concentration gradient. Therefore, it requires energy.
it include active transport and Endocytosis, pocketing in by plasma membrane.
 Passive movement: includes

• a) Active Transport: till equilibrium substances could more

by passive movement. But if equilibrium reached and still
more molecules are needed, they must be pumped
through the membrane against concentration gradient.
• This process requires the use of ATP. One example of such
processes is Sodium – potassium pump and calcium pump.
In this process all follows similar process. These are
molecules bind to carrier protein, molecule- carrier
complex pass through the membrane, assisted by an
enzyme & ATP and carrier protein returns to its original
shape & repeat the process.
 The two major parts of the cells interior
to:
• The nucleus
• The cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm:-
 The structure interior to the protoplasmic
membrane, but outside of the nucleus.
 It is the substance that surrounds organelles
 It is located between the nucleus and plasma
membrane
Contain organelle and Cytosol
I. Organelles:- are permanent structures with
characteristic morphology that are highly
specialized in specific cellular activity.
II. Cytosol:- The complex like mass of fluid that filled
the cytoplasm not occupied by the organelles
 Organelles
• Contain a number of district, highly organized membrane
enclosed structures which depressed in complex gel like
mass.
• Nearly all cells contain all most six main types of
organelles. i.e.
1. Endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi complex
3. Lysosomes
4. Peroxisomes
5. Mitochondria
6. Vaults
• Organelles are like intracellular “specialty shapes” renewed
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– The ER is continuous with the outer membrane of
the nuclear envelope
There are 2 types of ER:
• Rough ER – has ribosomes attached
• Smooth ER – no ribosomes attached
• Smooth ER (SER)
– Tubular membrane structure
– Continuous with RER
– No ribosomes attached
• Function SER
– Lipids are made inside the SER
• fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols..
– Lipids are packaged in transport vesicles and sent to the
Golgi
 N.B: The general function of ER are:-
 Serve as a net work of traffic path ways &
conducting channels.
 Transport the protein synthesized by ribosome.
 Transport material from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm & vice versa.
 Provide a surface for chemical rxn /lipid
metabolism/
 Synthesis of lipids & steroids (smooth ER)
 Ribosome:-
• Tiny granules composed of ribosomal RNA & protein,
with out membrane.
• Free ribosome’s are dispersed through out the cytosol
which synthesize proteins for use in the cytosol it self.
• Ribosomes found on the rough ER-synthesize protein for
secretion & construction of new cellular components.
• Cytosolic ribosomes synthesizing identical proteins are
clustered together in assembly lines known as
polyribosomes.
• Ribosomes are a protein factory site
 NUCLEUS
CYTOSKELETON

RIBOSOMES

MITOCHONDRION ROUGH ER

CYTOPLASM SMOOTH ER

CENTRIOLES

GOLGI BODY

PLASMA LYSOSOME
MEMBRANE VESICLE
Fig. 4-15b, p.59