Semiconductor Physics

Free electron Theory

Following are the basic assumptions made in the theory

• All metals contain a fixed number of valence electrons forming an Electron Gas, which
are free to move throughout the volume of the metal like molecules of a gas.

• The positive ions which can vibrate about their mean position, cannot move from one
lattice site to another. The repulsive force between the negatively Charged Electron is
ignored and the electric field due to the positive ions is assumed to be uniform.

• The electron velocities in metals obey the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution of

velocities . The electrons move from one point to another randomly with Random
Velocity which is temperature dependent. At room temperature, this velocity is about 4
 105 m/s.

• The Kinetic Energy of the electron is given by 3 kT/2, where k is Boltzmann's constant
and T is absolute temperature.

• In absence of external electric field, the electrons move in Random Directions, making
collisions from time to time with positive ions, which are fixed in lattice. This makes net
current zero.
 Free electron Theory
Following are the basic assumptions made in the theory

• When an electric field is applied, free electrons move towards positive

terminal of the supply. Thus, the electrons will experience two motions –
random motion due to temperature and drift motion due to applied voltage.
As a result the electron will move in Opposite Direction to the Electric Field
while maintaining their random motion.

• While drifting towards positive of the supply, the electrons colloid with positive
ions. During each collision the electron loses all its drift velocity and starts
from rest once again. The average distance covered by an electron between
collisions is known as Mean Free Path 'l' and time taken to cover this distance
is termed as relaxation time 't'.

• As the temperature increases, the vibration of the ion core increases, this
increases the probability of electron-core collision. As a result, Resistivity
Increases with Increase in Temperature.
 Density of states

• Density of States –The density of states (DOS) is essentially the number

of different states at a particular energy level that electrons are allowed
to occupy, i.e. the number of electron states per unit volume per unit
energy.
• Bulk properties such as specific heat, paramagnetic susceptibility, and
other transport phenomena of conductive solids depend on this function.
• DOS calculations allow one to determine the general distribution of
states as a function of energy and can also determine the spacing
between energy bands in semi-conductors.
 Bloch Theorem

Bloch functions serve as a suitable basis for the states of

electrons in crystalline solids. The description of electrons in
terms of Bloch functions, termed Bloch electrons underlies the
concept of electronic band structures.

A theorem that specifies the form of a wave function that

characterize electron energy level in periodic crystals.
 Effective mass of electron

• We generally assume that the mass of an electron in a solid is same as

that of free electron. However, experimentally measured values indicates
that in some solids the electron mass is larger while for others it is
smaller than the free electron mass. The experimentally determined
mass of the electron is called the effective mass m* . The cause for the
deviation of the effective mass from the free electron mass is due to the
interaction between the drifting electrons and the atoms in the solid.
Effective mass depends upon the location of the electron in the allowed
energy band.

• For electrons in a solid, the effective mass is usually stated in units of

the rest mass of an electron, me (9.11×10−31 kg).
 Origin of band gap, Energy bands in solids
• In a single isolated atom the electrons in each orbit have definite energy
associated with it. But in case of solids all the atoms are close to each other, so
the energy levels of outermost orbit electrons are affected by the neighboring
atoms.
• When two single or isolated atoms are bring close to each other then the
outermost orbit electrons of two atoms are interact or shared with each other.
i.e, the electrons in the outermost orbit of one atom experience a attractive
force from the nearest or neighboring atomic nucleus. Due to this the energies
of the electrons will not be in same level, the energy levels of electrons are
changed to a value which is higher or lower than that of the original energy level
of the electron. The electrons in same orbit exhibits different energy levels. The
grouping of this different energy levels is called energy band.
• Valence band - The energy band which is formed by grouping the range of
energy levels of the valence electrons or outermost orbit electrons is called as
valence band. Valence band is present below the conduction band as shown in
figure. Electrons in the valence band have lower energy than the electrons in
conduction band. The electrons present in the valence band are loosely bound
to the nucleus of atom.
 Origin of band gap, Energy bands in solids
• Forbidden gap - The energy gap which is
present between the valence band and
conduction band by separating these
two energy bands is called as forbidden
band or forbidden gap. In solids,
electrons cannot stay in forbidden gap
because there is no allowed energy
state in this region. Forbidden gap is the
Conduction band - The energy band which
major factor for determining the
is formed by grouping the range of energy
electrical conductivity of a solid. The
levels of the free electrons is called as
classification of materials as insulators,
conduction band. Generally, the
conductors and semiconductors is
conduction band is empty but when
mainly depends on forbidden gap. The
external energy is applied the electrons in
energy associated with forbidden band
the valence band jumps in to the
is called energy gap and it is measured
conduction band and becomes free
in unit electron volt (eV). The applied
electrons. Electrons in the conduction
external energy in the form of heat or
band have higher energy than the
light must be equal to to the forbidden
electrons in valence band. The conduction
gap in order to push an electron from
band electrons are not bound to the
valence band to the conduction band.
nucleus of atom.
 Fermi-Dirac probability function
The Fermi-Dirac distribution function • For an energy E equal to the Fermi level EF , the
P(E) gives the probability that an
energy state of energy E will be probability of occupation is given by
occupied by an electron at absolute
temperature T. The quantity EF is the
P (EF) = 1/2 ... (2)
Fermi energy.
K-Boltzman’s constant.
At 0 k, electrons will have low Thus, an energy state at the FERMI level has a
energy and will occupy low probability of ½, being occupied by an
energy state. “The highest energy electron for a temperature T> 0 K.
state among these occupied
states is the Fermi level.” Thus
Fermi level is the energy level • At T = 0 K for E < EF, the term e(E – EF)/kT = 0
which is occupied by the electron P (E) = 1 ………(3)
orbital at temperature equal to
i.e. the probability of finding an electron with
zero Kelvin.
energy less than FERMI energy is unity. Or it
1 can be said that at T = 0 K all energy states
P( E )  ( E  EF ) ... (1) below EF, have a probability of occupancy of
1 e kT
unity i.e. they are certainly occupied.
 Fermi-Dirac probability function

• At T = 0 K for E > EF, the term e(E – EF)/kT = 

P (E) = 0 ……..(4)
i.e. the energy states above EF have zero
probability of occupancy and they are
therefore empty.

• The rectangular distribution implies that at

0 K every available energy state up to EF is
filled with electrons and all the states above
EF are empty.
The probability function plotted for • At temperatures higher than 0 K, some
different temperatures. probability exists for states above Fermi
level to be filled. When the temperature is
raised, there is a greater possibility of
electrons being found above the Fermi level
with an equal probability of finding a hole
below the Fermi level.
 Position of Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductors

The Fermi level is exactly in the

middle of the forbidden gap, for
intrinsic semiconductor as
shown in figure.

• In semiconductors, the FERMI level is a reference level that gives the probability
of occupancy of states in conduction band as well as in valence band.
• In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the band picture consists of a band of
completely filled states called as the 'Valence Band' separated from a band of
unoccupied states called as the 'Conduction Band', by an energy gap Eg. For an
intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies at the centre of the forbidden band,
indicating that the states occupied in conduction band are equal to the states
unoccupied in valence band. In other words, for every electron in the
conduction band, there is a hole in the valence band.
 Position of Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductors
• Derivation -
Position of Fermi level in P – type semiconductors
• In P-type semiconductor, the
concentration of holes is greater
than that of electrons.
• This makes the 'Centre of Gravity'
move down, so that Fermi level is
below the middle of the forbidden
band.

• Acceptors represent isolated energy

levels, and lie close to the top of
filled valence band. In Ge, this
discrete energy level is only 0.01 eV
above the valence band. Hence, a
very small amount of energy is
required for an electron to leave
Ev ≤ EF ≤ Ea the valence band and occupy the
acceptor energy level. Thus, holes
are created in the valence band.
 Position of Fermi level in N-type semiconductors
• The N-type or pentavalent
impurity semiconductor has
more conduction electrons than
holes. This moves the 'centre of
gravity' up so that the Fermi
level is above the middle of the
forbidden band.
• Donors represent isolated energy
levels located very close to the
bottom of the unfilled
conduction band. (Normally for
Ge, 0.01 eV below the lower
edge of conduction band).
Ed ≤ EF ≤ Ec Hence, very little energy is
required to raise an electron
Closer the Fermi level to the conduction from the donor level into the
band, easier for the electrons to transit to conduction band where it is free
the conduction band for conduction of electricity.
 Band structure of p-n junction diode
• The P-type material has more holes than
free electrons and the N-type material
has more free electrons than holes.
• When the junction is made between
these materials, the holes would tend to
move from P-type material into the N-
type material and electrons would tend
to move from the N-type material into
the P-type material, due to the
difference in the concentration of holes
and electrons on either side of a P-N
junction.

The junction diode passes a large current • This process is called as 'Diffusion'. The
in one direction and almost no current in two materials then equalize their Fermi
the other direction. The Fermi level in P- levels. The diffused charge carriers
combine at the junction to neutralize
type material is located close to the top of
each other. Due to this neutralization, a
the valence band, whereas in N-type
charge free space called 'Depletion
material Fermi level lies close to the Layer', of width of the order of a few
bottom of the conduction band. microns, is formed near the junction.
Band structure of p-n junction diode
• Due to the diffusion of holes from P to N region,
negative ions are produced in P region. Similarly,
due to the diffusion of electrons from N into P
region, positive ions are produced in N-region. Both
these negative and positive ions are immobile and
form parallel rows of opposite charges facing each
other across the depletion layer.

• Because of this charge separation, an electric

potential VO develops across the junction under an
equilibrium condition, i.e. with the junction
externally isolated. This potential is called as the
'Barrier Potential‘.

• Once the potential barrier is established, further

diffusion of majority charge carriers across the
junction is prevented.

• On applying external voltage to P-N junction, diode

conduction can occur only in one direction, so it is
used as a rectifier.
 Zero bias

Zero bias - actual

diagram
Band structure of p-n junction diode, forward biasing

• Under forward biasing the P-

side is connected to the
positive terminal and N-side to
the negative terminal of the
battery.

• Due to the forward bias,

equilibrium conditions are
disturbed and therefore energy
bands and the Fermi levels are
altered.
Band structure of p-n junction diode, forward biasing

• Since in forward bias, negative terminal

of the battery is connected to N-type
side, the energy of the electrons in the
N-side increases by an amount eV, where
V is the externally applied voltage.
• Consequently, Fermi level raises by eV
and the energy bands adjust their
positions so as to suit the elevation of
Fermi level.
• Due to the increase in energy in N-type
side, the potential barrier is reduced to
e(VB – V) and the barrier width is
reduced. Hence the electrons crossing
the junction from N-side will now face a
low potential barrier and they can easily
cross the junction.
• For conduction to take place in a P-N
diode, the forward bias potential should
be greater than the barrier potential.
Band structure of p-n junction diode, reverse biasing

• In this case, N-side is connected

to the positive terminal and P-
side to the negative terminal of
the battery. This lowers the
Fermi level on N-side by an
amount eV raising the barrier
height to e(VB + V) and thereby
increasing the width of the
depletion layer.

• The electrons which are the

majority carriers in the N-side
will now face a greater potential
barrier in crossing the junction.
Therefore the number of
electrons crossing from N-side to
P-side decreases and hence the
current is very much reduced.
Band structure of p-n junction diode, reverse biasing

• In this case, N-side is connected to

the positive terminal and P-side to
the negative terminal of the
battery. This lowers the Fermi level
on N-side by an amount eV raising
the barrier height to e(VB + V) and
thereby increasing the width of the
depletion layer.

• The electrons which are the

majority carriers in the N-side will
now face a greater potential
barrier in crossing the junction.
Therefore the number of electrons
crossing from N-side to P-side
decreases and hence the current is
very much reduced.
 Conductivity in conductor and semi-conductor
• Derivations for
– Conductivity in conductors
– Conductivity in semi conductors
Hall effect and Hall coefficient

• df
 Hall effect and Hall coefficient
• If a piece of conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is placed in a
transverse magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a
direction normal to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is
known as 'Hall Effect' and the voltage so generated is called as 'Hall Voltage'.
• Assume that the sample material is an N-type semiconductor. The current flow
consists, almost entirely, of electrons moving from right to left. This movement
corresponds to the direction of conventional current from left to right as shown
in the figure.
• If v is the drift velocity of the electrons moving perpendicular to the magnetic
field B, there is a downward force Bev acting on each electron. This causes the
electrons to be deflected in the downward direction. This makes negative
charges to accumulate on the bottom face of the slab leaving positive ions on the
top surface. This gives rise to a potential difference along the top and bottom
faces of the specimen across faces 1 and 2 with the bottom face being negative.
This potential difference causes a field EH in the negative y-direction and so a
force eEH acts on the electrons in the upward direction.
• Under equilibrium, the upward force due to the electric field just balances the
downward force due to the magnetic field.
Hall voltage, Hall coefficient Derivation
Solar cell
 Solar cell
• When a P-N junction is exposed to sunlight, photons of energy hν are absorbed,
if hν is greater than the band gap Eg. Electron-hole pairs are then generated in
both the P-side and N-side of the junction. The electrons and holes that are
produced within a small distance of the junction reach the space charge region
by diffusion.
• The electron-hole pairs are separated by the strong barrier field existing across
the space charge region. Electrons in the P-side slide down the barrier potential
to move to the N-side while holes in N-side move towards the P-side.
• When the P-N junction is open circuited, the accumulation of electrons and
holes on the two sides of the junction gives rise to an 'Open-Circuited Voltage'
Voc. When a load resistance is connected across the diode, current flows in the
circuit. This effect is known as 'Photovoltaic Effect'.
• When the diode terminals are short circuited, the maximum current obtained is
called the short 'Circuit Current' Isc.
• The current flows as long as the diode is illuminated by sunlight. The magnitude
of current flowing is proportional to the light intensity.
• Efficiency of solar cell (h) = output power / incident solar power
 Solar cell
• The figure shows I-V characteristics of a solar cell. The I-V characteristics of solar
cell is studied by changing the load resistance RL and measuring current flowing
through and voltage appearing across it.
• When load RL is zero maximum current flows through it but voltage will be zero,
this current is called the 'Short-Circuit Current ISC'. As voltage is zero it will come
on current axis. As load increase at a particular stage when RL becomes infinity,
the current will be zero and voltage will reach the maximum value. This
maximum voltage is called Open-Circuit Voltage Voc and is plotted on voltage
axis. For maximum voltage VOC, current is zero or vice-versa. So the product VOC
ISC will not give the maximum power drawn from the solar cell.
• For getting maximum power from the solar cell, draw a line at 45 passing from
origin, the point (Vw, Iw) where the line will cut the curve will give maximum
usable power. The ratio of maximum usable power to ideal power is called as Fill
Factor.
• Fill factor 'f' = experimentally obtained maximum power (Vw * Iw) / theoretically
obtained maximum power of solar cell. (Voc * Isc)
 Solar cell

Iw VwIw

Vw