P.K.

M PHYSICS
SEMICONDUTOR DEVICES
Energy Levels are known as valence electrons. Valance band has the
Each orbit has fxed amount of energy associated electrons of highest energy. This band may be
with i. The electron moving in aparticular orbit posses completely or partially filled. This band is never empty.
the energy of that ortbit. The larger the orbit, the greater For instance in case of inert gases, the valence band is
is its energy and higher is the energy level. The first full where as for other materials, it is only partialy filled.
orbit represents the first energy level, the second orbit The partially flled band can accommodate more
indicates the second energy level and so on. electrons.

3rd ENERGY LEVEL (Ö) This is the band of maximum enErgy.

3
2nd ENERGY LEVEL (ü) Electrons are not capable of gaining energy from
external electric field.
1st ENERGY LEVEL (i0) The electrons in this band do not contribute to the
electric current.
(iv) The highest energy level which can be occupied by
NUCLEUS EDGE OF NUCLEUS an electron in valence band at 0 K is called fermi level.
(ü (2) Conduction Band - In certain matarials the
ENERGY
valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus.
3rd
BAND Even at ordinary temp, some of the valence elecrons
BAND may get detached to become free electrons. It is these
1st
IHIWA BANO free electrons which are responsible for the conduction
of current in a conductor. For this reason they are called
conduction electrons. ENERAGY
BAND NDUCINNPAND
Energy Bands FORSIDDEN
In case of a single isolated atom, the electrons in ENE RGY

any orbt posses definite energy. When atoms bound NALENcE BANO
together form a solid, each atom is influenced by
presence of neighbouring atoms. So that the electron in The range of energies (.e., band) possessed by
any orbt of such an atom can have a range of energles conduction electrons is known as conduction band.
rather than a single energy. This is known as energy
band. (0) It is also called empty band of minimum energy.
(i) This band is either empty or partially filled by the
The range of energies possessed by an electrons at room temperature.
elecon in a solid is known as energy band. (i) In this band the electrons can gain energy from
Important Energy Bands in solids external electric field and contribute to the electric
(1) Valernce Band - The range of energies (i.e., band) current.

SSod by valence electrons is known as valence (iv) The elect1ons in the conduction band are called the
freo electrons. They are able to move anywhero within
bard The decsons in the outer most orbit of an atom the volume of tha sclid.

ADITYA EDUCATIONS, A/69, BJ0 Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Mob D437290397,9938729962 H

 (v) In this band electrons are not present at O K. (3) Semi Conductors - Semi conductors are those
(3) Forbidden Energy Gap - The separation between substances whose electrical conductivity lies in
conduction band and valence band on the energy level between conductors and insulators.

diagram is known as forbidden energy gap. The energy gaps between valence and

No electron of a solid can stay in a forbidden conduction bands is very small. At low temperature the
energy gap as there is no allowed energy state in this valence band is completely fulland conduction band is
region. The width of the forbidden energy gap is a completely empty. Therefore a semi conductor virtually
measure of the bondage of valence electrons to the behaves as an insulator at low temperature. As the
atom. The greater the energy gap more tightly the temperature is increased more valence electrons cross
valence electrons are bound to the nucleus. The over to the conduction band and the conductivity
minimum energy required for shifting an electron from increases. This shows that the electrical conductivity of
valence band to conduction band (i.e., to make the a semi conductor increases with the rise in temperature.
valence electron free), external energy equal to the So semiconductors have negative temperature co
forbidden energy gap (E) must be supplied. efficient of resistance. Examples are germanium,
silicon, carbon etc.
(i)If 4 is the wavelength of radiation used in shifting an Properties of semiconductors -
electron from valence band to conduction band, then (i) The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an
hc
E, =hf= insulator but more than a conductor.
energy band gap
(iü) Semiconductors have negative temperature co
(ii) Width of forbidden energy gap depends upon the
nature of substance. efficient of resistance.
(i) As temperature increases, forbidden energy gap (ii) When a suitable metallic impurity (e.g. arsenic,
decreases very slighty. gallium etc) is added to a semiconductor, its current
conductingproperties change appreciably.
Classification of solids and Energy Bands
(1) Insulators - Insulator are those substances which Holes in Semiconductors
do not allow the passage of electric curent throughThere is a strong tendency of semi conductors to
them. They have poor electrical conductivity. form co-valent bonds. At room temperature some of the
In insulators valence band is full while the co-valent bonds in pure semiconductor break, setting
conduction band is empty. The energy gap between up free electrons. Under the influence of electric field,
valence and conduction bands is very large. So it is these free electrons constitute electric current. When a
practically impossíble for an electron to move from covalent bond is broken due to thermal energy, the
valence band to conduction band even if electric field is removal of one electron leaves a vacancy i.e., a missing
applied. For this reason the electrical conductivity of electron in the co-valent bond. This missing electron is
Such materials is extremely small .Examples are glass,called a hole which acts as a positive charge. For one
diamond, wood etc. electron set free, one hole is created.
(2) Conductors - Conductors are those substances
which easily allow the passage of electric current
through them. It is because there are large number of
free electrons available in a conductor.
Valence and conduction bands overlap each Suppose the valence electron at L has become
other. So electrons can move from valence band to free electron due to thermal energy. Thecreates a hole
conduction bands easily. Examples are metals. in the covalent bond at L. The hole is a strong centre of

ADITYA EDUCATIONS, A /69, BJ8 Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Mob :9437290697, 9938729967

attraction for the electron. A valence electron (say at M) (5) Because of less number of charge carriers at room
temperature, intrinsic serniconductors have low
from near by co-valent bond comes to fill in the hole at
conductivity so they have no practical use.
L. This results in the creation of hole at M. Another
Extrinsic Semiconductor
valence electron (say at N) in turn may leave its bond to
To increase the conductivity of intrinsic semi
fill the hole at M. Thus the hole having a positive charge
conductor certain specified impurities are added to it.
has moved from L to N i.e., the negative terminal of
The process of adding impurities is called doping. A
supply. This constitutes hole current. Hole moves in the doped semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor.
opposite direction of electrons.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the
Intrinsic Semiconductors
number of free electrons or holes. Depending on the
() A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic
type of impurity added extrinsic semi-conductors are
semiconductor. It has thermally generated current classified into
carriers (1) N -type semi conductor
(2) An intrinsic semiconductor has four electrons in the (2) P-type semi conductor
outermost orbit of atoms. Atoms are held together by
covalents bonds. At absolute zero temperature all the N-Type Semiconductor
valence electrons are tightly bound to parent atoms so
that no free electron is available. Hence the intrinsic (Ge) "
semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulators at Donor
electron|
absolute zero. FREE ELETRONS
GE As Ge
Valence
HOLES electrons

Ge Ge

(1) When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is

added to a pure semiconductor, it provides large
(3) At room temperature due to thermal energy covalent number of free electrons. The semi conductor is known
bond is broken. Then electron becomes free and leaves as n - type semiconductor. Impurities are phosphorus,
the bond leaving behind a vacancy of electron called arsenic, antimony and bismuth etc.
hole. We should note that free electrons and holes are (2) When pentavalent impurity is added to semi
generated simultaneously. Free electrons and holes conductor, four of its valence electrons forms co-valent
both are charge carriers and n, (in C.B.) =n, (in V.B.) bonds with neighbouring semi conductor atoms, while
(4) Current in an intrinsic semiconductor is due to the fifth electron is unattached (free). Thus each
movement of both free electrons and holes and impurity atom donate one electron to conduction band.
direction is same as both are oppositely charged. So It is also called as donor impurity. When fifth electron
electrons and holes are known as charge carriers. leaves the impurity atom, it then has +1 eXcess charge.
When electric field is applied across an intrinsic It then becomes a positively charged immobile ion.
semiconductor, electrons and holes move in opposite But the matter remains electrically neutral.
directions, so that the total conventional current (1) | (3) In n-type semi conductor no. of free electrons in
through the semiconductor is given by | = le In conduction band >>> no of holes in valence band. So
where, , = free electron current and Ih hole the electrons are majority carriers while the holes are
current. minority carriers. The Current conduction in n-type
ADITYA EDUCATIONS, A /69, BJB Nagar, Bhubaheswar, Mob : 9437290697, 9938729967 3
 to
jumps from neighbouring tond
semiconductor is predominantly by free electrons. (3) When an electron
created there and impurity
Hence conventional current | = l, + Ih
Here, I s l,(free electron Current)
elelel fill the deficiency, ahole is
atoms now becomes
immobile (-ve charged)
hole
impurity atom creates a
POSTIVELY acceptor ion. Thus each
FREE
CHARGED ELECTRONS in valence bond.
IMPURITY valence
ATOM semiconductor, no. of holes in
(4) In P type band. That
electrons in conduction
band >>> no. of free
are
carriers while electrons
is, holes are majority
The Current conduction
minority carriers.
conventional current I
predominantly by holes, so that
sh (hole current). N-type
P-Type emiconguctor charge on P-type or
Note : What is
P-type semiconductors ?
Intrinsic S.C there is no charge on
P-type or
S.C. trivalent It should be noted that by
impurity because both are formed
N-type semiconductor impurity)
(semiconductor and
combination of neutral of
semiconductor, we have excess
atoms. In N-type ions
Acceptor the same no. of donor
hole free electrons (-ve), but
semiconductor, we have excess of
(+ve). In P-type
of acceptor ions (-ve). So
holes (+tve), but the same no. semiconductors
Valence both types of
elecrons the net charge is zero on
Conductivity of Semiconductor
semiconductor of cross
Let us considera block of
potential difference
Fig. 13
trivalent impurity is added sectional area A and length I. Let a
(1)When a small amount of The current (0) set up in
creates a large number of Vbe applied across the block.
to intrinsic semiconductor, it the block is due to both the
electrons and the holes. If I
semi conductor is called as
holes in valence band. The
impurities are gallium, is the total current then I= l+h.
p-type semiconductor. The Where, l = current due to
electrons and,
indium, boron and alluminium etc.
is added to semi Ih= cuTent due to holes.
(2) When a trivalent impurity As the electrons move randomly in a metal,
the
forms co-valent
conductor, its three valence electrons holes in the
electron in the conduction band and
atoms, while the fourth
bonds with three neighbouring randomly. So
incomplete. The valence band of a semiconductor move
bond has a deficiency electron i.e., derived in
snatch an both l, and I, obey the equation (| = neAVa)
incomplete bond has a great tendency to
Therefore case of current flow in metals.
electron from the neighbouring atoms. (1)
::l,=nAeV,
trivalent impurity is also called as acceptor impurity,
Where, n, = electron density,
A-TYPE V= electron drift velocity
e = electronic charge.
Similarly, Ih = nAeVh .(2)
and, V, = hole
Where, nh = hole density
drift velocity
So I= nAeV + nAeVn
Mob: 943729 0597, 9938729967
ADITYA EDUCATIONS,A /69, BJB Nagar, Bhubaneswar,
 diffuse over to the P-side and holes to the n-side at the
Or, ngAeV, t niAeV, =eA (n,V, +n,va) junction.
But, R= pl Where p =resistivity.
A'
VA
So,
pl
-= eA (n,V +n,V)
DEPLETION
Or, E-e(nV, +n,Vn) .(3) LAYER

Electron mobility is defined as the drift velocity per unit

electric field. It is denoted by .
diffusing
From equation (3), (ü) The holes and the free electrons
junction. Each
towards each other combine near the
E=e(netE +nh HE) or, e,,+n,Hn) recombination eliminates an electron and a
hole. This
electric
as diffusion which results in an
of, G= e (nat, +n,4) [.:=g conductivity ] process is called diffusion
as
Current from the P-side to Nside known
Note - (1) The electron mobility is higher than the hole Curent.
junction
mobility. (ii) This creates an electric field near the
(2) The resistivity / conductivity of a semi
from N-type to P-type. Any hole near the junction is
conductor depends not only on the electrons and hole pushed by the electric field into the left half. Similarty,
densities but also on their mobilities any conduction electron near the junction is pushed by
the electric field into the right half. Thus a barriers is set
(3) Motion of electrons takes place in the
up against further movement of charge carriers ie,
conduction band and of holes in the valence band holes and electrons. The electric potential of n side is

under the action of electric field. higher than that of the p-side near the junction. So there
is a potential barrier at the juncion which is also called
(4) At absolute zero temperature (0 K) as junction barrier (Vo).
conduction band of semiconductor is completely empty
ie. o = 0. Hence the semiconductor behaves as an (iv) The material is still neutral outside this barrier
insulator.
P-N Junction Diode on each side of the junction. Only inside the barrier,
When a Ptype semiconductor is suitably joinedto there is positive donor ions on the n-side and negative
an N-type semiconductor, then resulting arrangement is acceptor ions in the P-side. Thus no charge carrier can
called P-N junction or P-N junction diode remain ina smallregion near the junction. This region is
P-N Junction
PN called depletion layer. It is so called because the
N Cathode
mobile charge carriers (i.e. free electrons and holes)
Anode
have been depleted (i.e., emptied) in this region.
Fig. 17 (a) The thickness of depletion layer is 1 micron =
10 m.
(1) Unbiased Diode - (i) Since N-type material has 1
high concentration of free electrons and p-type material (b) Width of depletion layer «
Dopping
has high concentration of holes, so when a P-Njunction (c) Depletion is directly proportional to
is formed, there is a tendency for the free electrons to temperature.

ADITYA EDUCATIONS, A/69, BJB Nagar, Bhubaneswar , Mob :9437290697, 9938729967

 (d) Potential barrler: The potential difference the n-reglon to replace the electrons lost due to the
created across the P-N junction due to the diffusion of combination with the holes at the junction
electron and holes is called potential barrier. (vi)lt 0s concluded that In n-type region current is
(2) Foward Blas - () When the positive terminal of the carried by free electrons, where as in p-type region, it is
atery is Connected to p-side and negative terminal tocarried by holes and in the external connecting wire, the
side, then the pn junctlon diode is said to be forward- current is carrled by free electrons. This is called as
biased. When external voltage applied to the junction is forward current.
in such a direction that it cancels the (vii)The junction resistance is negligible as
potential barrier,
thus permmitting current flow, it is called forward biasing. forward voltage eliminate the potential barrier. So a low
resistance path is established for the entire circuit.
Hole Junction (3) Reverse Bias- () When p-side is connected to
p-region n-region Elecuonnegative terminal and n-side to positive terminal of the
battery the pn junction diode is said to be reverse
biased. When the external voltage applied to the
1
junction is in such a direction that width of depletion
layer increases. So potential barrier is increased,
E it is called reverse biasing.
Junction

Hole p-region n-region -Electron

Battery (Forward biased)

(ü) The applied forward potential establishes an electric
field which acts against the field due to potential barrier.
Therefore the resultant field is weakened and width of E
the depletion region decreases and barrier potential
also decreases.
(i) The majority carriers, electrons in the n region
are repelled by the negative potential of the batery and
Battery (Reverse biased)
move towards the p-n junction. Similarly, the majority
carriers, holes in the p-region are repelled by the (ü) Applied reverse voltage establishes an electric
field which acts in the same direction as the field due to
positive potential of the battery , towards the junction
(iv) On crossing the junction, the number of the the potential barrier. Therefore the resultant field at the
is strengthened and width of the depletion
electrons and holes will combine with each other.For uncion
reglon increases. The increased potential barrier
each electron hole combination, a covalent bond in the
prevents the flow of charge carriers across the junction.
pregion,near the positive terminal of the battery is
Thus a high resistance path is established for the entire
broken and the liberated electron enters the positive
circuit and hence the current does not flow.
terminal of the battery through the connecting wires. (li) In reverse blasing , there is no conduction
(v) This acion results in a new hole,which move
across the junction due to majority carriers . However
towards the p-n junction, At the other end, the
a few minority carriers (holes in n-section and electrons
elecrons from the negative terminal of the battery enter
in p-section ) of p-n junction diode cross the junction
ADITYA EDUCATIONS, A /69, BJB Nagar, Bhubaneswar , Mob i 9437290697, 9938729967
after being
accelerated
They oonstitute a
by high
reverse bias
current that fows in the voltage
direction. This is
Curent Since the called reverse current or opposite
shows small increaselarge increase in leakage
in reverse voltage
of reverse current,
resistance p-n junction is high to the hence the
when reverse biased. The reverse flow of current
by the current is not limited
due to
magnitude of the applied voltage but is (For reverse bias
characteristics)
concentration of minority carriers limited The characteristic can be studied under three
of the junction. on either side namely, heads
zero external voltage, forward bias and
(V) It is essential to note bias.
reverse
that the potential barrier () Zero external
oppose the forward current and voltage- When the external voltage
supports the
Current The
voltage of external battery for reverse is zero, the potential barrier at the junction does not
biasing is low (about 1.5V) and for forward permit Current flow. Therefore circuit current is zero
high (10 to 25V). reverse biasing is which is indicated by point O.
Note : (1) Any device which (i) In forward bias when voltage is increased
freely allows electric from zero
curent in one direction but does not volt in steps and the corresponding value of
allow in the current is
opposite direction is called a diode. Thus a PN measured, the curve comes as OB. After a certain
acts as a diode. The diode is
junction voltage called knee voltage(V,) current
symbolized as increases very
sharply. At this voltage, barrier potential is
. the arrow completely
pointing in the direction in eliminated and diode offers low resistance.
which the current can pass freely.
(2) Break down voltage : Reverse voltage at which
break down of semiconductor occurs. For Ge it is 25 V 4 501
and for Si it is 35V. B Ge
40
Volt- Ampere Characteristics of p-n Junction (mA) Forward
. 30 characteristic
V-Icharacteristic of aP-N junction diode is the curve 20
between voltage across the junction and the circuit 10
Current. A resistance R is included in the circuit to limit 100 75 50 25 Knee Voltage
the current which is called as current - limiting (Va) Vo 0.5 1.0 (V)
+(V;)
resistance. This resistance prevents permanent Break 50 IR(A)
down
damage to the diode due to the flow of excessive 100
current through the diode. KReverse 150
characteristic
200
(b)

(iii) Reverse Bias - In reverse bias a micro ammeter

has been used as current is very small. This is called
reverse saturation current(l) and is due to minority
(For forward bias characteristics) carriers. There are a few free electrons in p-type and
few hole in n-type are called minority carriers. To these
minority carriers, the applied reverse bias appears as
ADITYA EDUCATIONS, A /69, BJB Nagar, Bhubaneswar , Mob: 9437290697, 9938729967
 forward bias. Therefore a small current flows in the During the negative half cyce end A is negative with
reverse direction. respec to end B. Under this condiion the diode is
The reverse voltage is increased from zero volt reverse biased and it conducts no aurrent Therefore
and corresponding values of current is measured. The current flows thYough the diode during positve half
reverse current is almost constant and hence called
Cycdes of input a.c. voltage only and it is blocked during
reverse saturation current. Diode resistance is very
high. As reverse voltage reaches value Ve, called break the negative haf cycles. So current through load R
down voltage, current increases very sharply because always in the same direction.
ac
covalent bonds in semi conductor are broken and a (2)) Full wave rectifier : t rectifies both halves of
D,
large no. of charge carriers are generated. Once the input signal.
breakdown voltage is reached, the high reverse current
may damage the junction. Therefore reverse voltage R
across a pn junction is always less than the break
down voltage.
wwT
ToP(c)
P-N Junction Diode as a Rectifier
As a diode conducts in forward bias and does
not conduct in reverse bias (current is practically zero). Input
this unidirectional property leads to application of diode ac signal
in rectifiers.
Rectifier is a circuit which converts ac to
unidirectional pulsating output. In other words it Output
dc signal
converts ac to dc. It is of following two types
(1) Half wave rectifier: When the P-N junction Flucuatng dc
diode rectifies half of the ac wave, it is called half wave Circuit -A full wave rectífier makes use of two diodes
rectifier
D, and D, ,centre tapped transformer and a load
output
resistance R. The input ac sigal ís connected to the
Input R dc secondary of the transformer. Diode D, utlises the a.c.
ac
voltage appearing across the upper hatf (OA) of
secondary winding for rectification whie diode D, uses
Vor I
the lower half winding (OB).the secondary of the
Input transfomer is tapped at its central point
ac signal
Operation - During the positive haf cyce of the
Vor I 4 secondary voltage, the end A of the secondary winding
Output
dc signal Vo or lé becomes positive and end B negative. This makes the
diode D, forward biased and diode D, reverse biased.
Circuit -A half wave rectifier makes use ofa single Therefore diode D, conducts Current while diode Dz
diode D ,a transformer and a load resistance R .The does not. So output current flows through load R by D,.
a.c. supply to be rectified is connected to the primary During negative half cycde, end A of the
coil of the transformer and the secondary coil is secondary winding becomes negative and end B
connected in series with the diode and load resistance positive. Therefore diode D, is reverse biased while
diode D, forward biased. So diode D, conducts whie
Ru.
Operation - The a.c. voltage across the secondary diode D, does not The conventional curTent flow is
winding AB changes pplarities after every half cycle. through diode D, load R and lower half winding.
During the positive ralf-cycle of input a.c. voltage, end Socurrent in load R_ is in the same direcion for
A becomes positive with respect to endB. This makes both half cycdes of input a.c. voltage. Therefore dc. is
the diode forward biased and hence it conducts curent. obtained across the loadRL.

ADITYA EDUCATIONS, A/69, BJB Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Mob : 9437290697, 9938729967