Slides

Type author
Bryman and names

Bell here
Business Research Methods
© Oxford University Press, 2015. All rights reserved.

Chapter Objectives
This chapter introduces:
• Business research methods in context.
• The elements of the research process.
• The messiness of business research.
Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

Research
“The systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc., in order
to establish facts and reach new conclusions” Oxford English dictionary
“A process of finding out information and investigating the unknown to solve a
problem” (Maylor & Blackmon, 2005)
“Something that people undertake in order to find out things in a systematic

way, thereby increasing their knowledge” Saunders et al (2007, p.5)

Business research
• • What is Business Research?

• “The application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about
business phenomena. These activities include defining business opportunities
and problems, generating and evaluating ideas, monitoring performance and
understanding the business processes” (Zikmund, 2010, pg#5)
• “Research is an organized, systematic and objective scientific inquiry or
investigation into a specific problem or issues, undertaken with the aim of
finding answers or solutions to it “ (Bryman & Bell, 2007)
• According to Clifford woody, research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing
and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions; to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

Characteristics of research
• Data for the research is collected

systematically
• Data for the research is interpreted
systematically
• There is a clear purpose of the research
study

Uniqueness of Business and
Management Research
• According to Easterby-Smith et al. (2002) (as cited in Saunders,

Lewis and Thornhill, 2007), business and management research
is unique because of the following:
• (a) the way in which managers (and researchers) draw on
knowledge developed by other disciplines;
• (b) the fact that managers tend to be powerful and busy people.
Therefore, they are unlikely to allow research access unless they
can see personal or commercial advantage; and
• (c) the requirement for the research to have some practical
consequence.

Objectives of Research
• Is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon, problem or to

achieve new insights into it (exploratory or formative
research studies).
• To analyze and describe fairly the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group (descriptive
research).
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else (studies with
this object known as diagnostic research).
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables. (such studies are known as hypothesis testing
research)

Alternatives to Research
• Without research the common sources of perceptions,

information and knowledge include the following:
• (a) Authority which is accepting something as true or as a fact
because it comes from people of authority;
• (b) Tradition refers to accepting something as true or as a fact
because it is based on the past – passed on from previous
generation and become a norm;
• (c) Common sense refers to ordinary reasoning which may be
built from a person’s experiences and sometimes tradition;
• Media myth refers to arriving at conclusions based on a reality
created by the media
• (e) Personal experience refers to learning through our sensory
impressions and knowledge – ‘seeing is believing’.

Types of Research
• There are eleven types of research depending on

whether it is primarily “fundamental” or “applied” in
nature. They are as follows:
• Applied research or decisional research is using
existing knowledge as an aid to the solution of
some given problem or set of problems.
• Fundamental research or basic or pure
research, seeks to extend the boundaries of
knowledge in a given area with no necessary
immediate application to existing problems.
Types of Research
• Futuristic research is the systematic study of possible future

conditions. It analysis on how those conditions might change as a
result of the implementation of policies and actions, and the
consequences of these policies and actions.
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries
of different kinds. It tries to discover answers to the questions who,
what, when and sometimes how. Here the researcher attempts to
describe or define a subject, often by creating a profile of a group
of problems, people, or events. The major purpose of descriptive
research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.

Types of Research
• Explanatory research: Explanatory research

goes beyond description and attempts to
explain the reasons for the phenomenon that
the descriptive research only observed. The
research would use theories or at least
hypothesis to account for the forces that
caused a certain phenomenon to occur.

Types of Research
• Predictive research: If we can provide a

plausible explanation for an event after it has
occurred, it is desirable to be able to predict
when and in what situations the event will
occur. This research is just as rooted in theory
as explanation. This research calls for a high
order of inference making. In business
research, prediction is found in studies
conducted to evaluate specific courses of
action or to forecast current and future values.

Types of Research
• Analytical research: The researcher has to

use facts or information already available,
and analyse these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
• Quantitative research: Quantitative research
is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. It is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of quantity.

Types of Research
• Qualitative research: It is concerned with qualitative

phenomenon (i.e.) phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind. This type of research aims at discovering
the underlying motives and desires, using in depth
interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such
research are word association test, sentence completion
test, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research
designed to find out how people feel or what the think
about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative
research.

Types of Research
• Conceptual research: Conceptual research

is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers
and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.

Types of Research
• Empirical research: It is appropriate when

proof is sought that certain variables affect
other variables in some way. Evidence
gathered through experiments or empirical
studies is today considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a give
hypothesis.

Types of investigation
in research
• Experiment: The researcher will manipulate an independent variable

in order to determine whether it has an impact on a dependent
variable (laboratory experiment & filed experiment).
• Survey: The researcher use methods which investigates the opinions
and feelings of people. Information is collected through questionnaire
or interview in many cases.
• Case study: The researcher makes a detailed study of a particular
single case. The researcher usually aims to provide in-depth
understanding of the specific features of the case and its related
settings. Data are collected through observation, interview and
document research.

Research design
• Qualitative research Understanding of human behavior and the

reasons that govern such behavior. Asking a broad question and
collecting data in the form of words, images, video etc that is
analyzed searching for themes. This type of research aims to
investigate a question without attempting to quantifiably measure
variables or look to potential relationships between variables. It is
viewed as more restrictive in testing be expensive and time
consuming, and typically limited to a single set of research subjects .
Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory
research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.
Qualitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical
stance of social constructionism.

Research Approaches
• Quantitative research Systematic empirical investigation of
quantitative properties and phenomena and their
relationships. Asking a narrow question and collecting
numerical data to analyze utilizing statistical methods. The
quantitative research designs are experimental,
correlational, and survey (or descriptive). Statistics derived
from quantitative research can be used to establish the
existence of associative or causal relationships between
variables. Quantitative research is linked with the
philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.

Research Philosophies,
Methodology and Method

The Process of Inductive

Deductive Research

The Scientific Method: An Overview
Formulate
Assess concepts & Statement Design
relevant Propositions of research
existing Hypotheses
knowledge
Acquire Analyze & Provide

empirical evaluate explanation-
data data state new
problem
The Relationship between Quantitative
and Qualitative Research

The Relationship between Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Strength and Weaknesses of
Quantitative research

Strength and Weaknesses of
Qualitative research

Determining When to Conduct
Business Research
Availability of Data Benefits vs.
Time Constraints Nature of the Decision Costs
Is the infor- Does the value
Is sufficient time
Yes mation already Yes
Is the decision
Yes of the research Yes Conducting
available before of considerable
a managerial
on hand
strategic
information Business
inadequate exceed the cost
decision
for making
or tactical
of conducting Research
must be made? importance?
the decision? research?
No No No No
Do Not Conduct Business Research

Value of Research ShouldExceed
Estimated Costs
Costs
Value •Research
expenditures
•Decreased certainty •Delay of business
•Increased likelihood decision and possible
of a correct decision disclosure of
•Improved business information to rivals
performance and •Possible erroneous
resulting higher profits research results
Characteristics of a Good Research
• Aim
• Rigor
• Testability
• Replicability
• Precision and Confidence
• Objectivity
• Generalizability
• Parsimony

Research ethic
• Ethics are norms or behaviour in maintaining

integrity and high standards or relationships
with others. They refer to the appropriateness
of the behaviour in relation to the rights of
those who will become the subject of the
research or who may be affected by the
pursuant of the research.
• Privacy, Confidentiality, : key ethical issues

Research Ethics
• Non-disclosure items, Protection of

Information
• Deception - when the participants are told
only part of the truth
• Ethical issues may be related to a researcher
attempting to work or data of other researcher
• Secondary data is subjected to ethical issue.

What is Theory
• A formal logical explanation of some events

that includes predictions of how things related
to one another….(Zikmund, 2010, P39)

Theory
• A coherent set of general propositions used

as principles of explanation of the apparent
relationships of certain observed phenomena.
• A proposition is the relationship between two

or more concepts.
• E.g. “If an organization improves employees’
level of motivation, productivity will improve”.

Two Purposes Of Theory
• Prediction
• Understanding

Concept (or Construct)
• A generalized idea about a class of objects,

attributes, occurrences, or processes that has
been given a name
• Building blocks that abstract reality
• “leadership,” “productivity,” and “morale”
• “gross national product,” “asset,” and
“inflation”

Scientific Business Researchers Operate at
Two Levels
• Abstract level
– concepts
– propositions
• Empirical level
– variables
– hypotheses

Definitions
• Abstract level -In theory development, the

level of knowledge expressing a concept that
exists only as an idea or a quality apart from
an object.
• Empirical level -Level of knowledge reflecting
that which is verifiable by experience or
observation.

Abstract Level
• Concepts abstract reality.
• Propositions are statements concerned with
the relationships among concepts.

Concept A Concept B
(Reinforcement) (Habits)
Hypothesis at Empirical
Level
Dollar bonus for
sales volume Always makes
over quota four sales calls
a day
• A hypothesis is a proposition that is empirically
testable. It is an empirical statement concerned
with the relationship among variables.
• A variable is anything that may assume different

numerical values.

Problem Definition, Research
Objectives, Research Questions
and Research Proposal

• Decision Statement
– A written expression of the key question(s) that the
research user wishes to answer.
• Problem Definition
– The process of defining and developing a decision
statement and the steps involved in translating it into
more precise research terminology, including a set of
research objectives.

EXHIBIT b Defining Problems Can Be Difficult
6–46
The Problem-Definition Process
• Problem
– When there is a difference between the current
conditions and a more preferable set of conditions.
• Problems Mean Gaps
– Business performance is worse than expected
business performance.
– Actual business performance is less than possible
business performance.
– Expected business performance is greater than
possible business performance.
6–47
EXHIBIT C The Problem-Definition Process
6–48
Understand the Business Decision
• Situation Analysis
– The gathering of background information to
familiarize researchers and managers with the
decision-making environment.
• Interview Process
– Develop many alternative problem statements
– Think about possible solutions to the problem
– Make lists
– Be open-minded
6–49
Understand the Business Decision
• Identifying Symptoms
– Interrogative techniques
• Asking multiple what, where, who, when, why, and how
questions about what has changed.
– Probing
• An interview technique that tries to draw deeper and
more elaborate explanations from the discussion.
6–50
EXHIBIT D What Has Changed?
6–51
EXHIBIT E Symptoms Can Be Confusing
Writing Managerial Decision Statements into
Corresponding Research Objectives
• Decision statements must be translated into

research objectives.
– Once the decision statement is written, the research
essentially answers the question, “What information is
needed to address this situation?”
• Research objectives are the deliverables of the
research project.
6–53
EXHIBIT 6.5 Translating Decision Statements
6–54
Determine the Unit of Analysis
• Unit of Analysis
– Indicates what or who should provide the data and at what level of
aggregation.
• Individuals (such as customers, employees, and owners)
• Households (families, extended families, and so forth)
• Organizations (businesses and business units)
• Departments (sales, finance, and so forth)
• Geographical areas
• Objects (products, advertisements, and so forth).
– Multi-level analysis studies variables measured at more than one unit of
analysis.
6–55
Determine the Relevant Variable
• What is a Variable?
– Anything that varies or changes from one instance
to another; can exhibit differences in value, usually
in magnitude or strength, or in direction.
• What is a Constant?
– Something that does not change; is not useful in
addressing research questions.
6–56
• Continuous variable • Dependent variable
– Can take on a range of – A process outcome or a
quantitative values. variable that is predicted
and/or explained by other
• Categorical variable
variables.
– Indicates membership in some
group. • Independent variable
– Also called classificatory – A variable that is expected to
variable. influence the dependent
variable in some way.
6–57
EXHIBIT F Example Business Decision Situations,
Corresponding Research Hypotheses, and Variable
Descriptions
6–58
Writing Research Objectives and
Questions
• Research Questions
– Express the research objectives in terms of
questions that can be addressed by research.
– Help to develop well-formulated, specific
hypotheses that can be empirically tested.
– Help the researcher design a study that will
produce useful results.
6–59
Clarity
• Research Questions in Research
Questions
– The researcher’s and Hypotheses
translation of the problem into a specific
inquiry.
• Provide input that can be used as a standard for selecting from
among alternative solutions.
• Hypotheses
– Statements that can be empirically tested.
• State what is expected to be found through the study.
• Managerial Action Standard
– A specific performance criterion upon which a decision can
be based.
6–60
EXHIBIT G Influence of Decision Statement of Marketing
Problem on Research Objectives and Research
Designs
6–61
• BudgetHow Muchusually
constraints Timeinfluence
Shouldhow Bemuch
effort is spentSpent on Problem
on problem definition.
Definition?
• The more important the decision faced by
management, the more resources should be
allocated toward problem definition.
• The time taken to identify the correct problem is
usually time well spent.
6–62
Factors which influence the choice of a
research topic
You Supervisor Gaps in

Literature
Data Sponsor Society

(Trend and News)
Source

Some topics to avoid
• Common/over-used topics
• Topics related to religion/controversy
• General/broad topics
• Topics that are too narrow
• Politics related topics

Research Gaps (the discrepancies in existing research literature which needs to be
addressed)
• Missing issues in the literature

• Limited discussions in the literature
• Conflicts in theoretical approach
• Missing theoretical model
• Conflicts in empirical methods (data collection and analysis)
• Mixed previous empirical results
• Less contextual evaluation or geographical representation
• Complex (limited previous results, conflicts, absence, mixed
view)

The Research Proposal
• Research Proposal
– A written statement of the research design.
• Uses for the Proposal
– As a planning tool
– As a contract
• Funded Business Research
– Basic research usually performed by academic
researchers that is financially supported by some
public or private institution as in federal
government grants.
6–67
Formulating Research Proposal
• University may require you to produce a

research proposal prior to setting out on your
dissertation or research project.
• This can vary from a simple statement of
intent to a full-blown assessment, which might
include things like:

• A working title, encapsulating the aims, scope and
strategy of your study
• A critical literature review of your research area,
out of which you may be expected to derive
research questions
• A short statement of your overall research
perspective or strategy
• Specific aims and objectives for your study
• How you would intend to gain access to
appropriate sites, data or informants for your study

• the methods of data collection you intend to use and a justification of
their appropriateness, strengths and weaknesses in relation to your
study, including relevant references to the literature
• how you would construct your sample frame and an outline of your
sampling strategy
• an indication of what type of analysis you would wish to perform on
your data
• any problems you might anticipate (e.g. in access or sampling, etc.)
and how you might resolve these
• a consideration of any ethical or professional issues raised by your
proposals
• a research timetable or timeline

Type author names here
Reviewing the Literature

Objectives
• Define Literature review
• Explain the need for literature review
• Appreciate the steps in literature review
• Know the sources of various literature
• Have critical mind-set for literature review
• Appreciate how to use the American
Psychological Association (APA) Referencing
Style

The Meaning of Literature Review
• Literature review is “a synthesis of available

resources and materials with a strong relation to
the topic in question, accompanied by a
description and a critical evaluation and
comparative analysis of each work” (Boateng,
2014).
• Notes:
1. Synthesis
2. Available resources and materials
3. Strong relation to the topic
4. …Description and a critical evaluation and
comparative analysis of each work

Descriptive and Analytical Review
• Descriptive Review
“A study by Uche (2000) on unemployment in the banking
industry in Nigeria highlighted that inflation affected
turnover of banks which had also had an effect on
salary payments. Over 2000 bank employees lost their
jobs by the end of 1999. Thakur (2005) discussed that
lack of capital for start-up initiatives and high interest
rates on loans stalled entrepreneurial ventures and
contributed to unemployment or the lack of job
opportunities. In a recent study on unemployment in
Egypt, Salia (2011) found political instability, poor
governance and lack of foreign direct investment to be
the critical factors influencing unemployment”.

• Analytical Review
“Literature demonstrates that the key factors which
contribute to unemployment in Africa have tended to
change over time. In the late 1990s researchers
argue that inflation and low wages contributed to
unemployment (Uche, 2000; Benson, 2003). A study
by Uche (2000) on unemployment in the banking
industry in Nigeria highlighted that inflation affected
the turnover of banks which had also had effects in
salary payments. Over 2000 bank employees lost
their jobs by the end of 1999.

On the other hand, by 2004, researchers discussed that lack of capital for
start-up initiatives and high interest rates on loans stalled entrepreneurial
ventures and contributed to unemployment or the lack of job opportunities
(Thakur, 2005). A comparative study (Kinson, 2006) on the SME industry in
Ghana and Uganda shared similar finaings on the effect of start-up capital
and interest loans on entrepreneurship and unemployment. In a recent
study in Egypt, Salia (2011) found political instability, poor governance and
lack of foreign direct investment to be the critical factors influencing
unemployment. Other studies in Cote d’Ivoire and Sierra Leone attest to
these findings (Johnson, 2009; Pern, 2010).
In effect, unemployment in Africa may be viewed from a multi-fecet

perspective. It cannot be reduced to one single factor”.

Goals of Literature Review (Neuman,
2014)
• To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of
knowledge and establish credibility. A review tells a
reader that the researcher knows the research in
an area and knows the major issues. A good
review increases a reader’s confidence in the
researcher’s professional competence, ability, and
background

• To show the path of prior research and how a
current project is linked to it. A review outlines the
direction of research on a question and shows the
development of knowledge. A good review places a
research project in a context and demonstrates its
relevance by making connections to a body of
knowledge

• To integrate and summarize what is known in
an area. A review pulls together and
synthesizes different results. A good review
points out areas in which prior studies agree,
disagree, and major questions remain. It
collects what is known up to a point in time
and indicates the direction for future
research.

• To learn from others and stimulate new ideas.
A review tells what others have found so that
a researcher can benefit from the efforts of
others. A good review identifies blind alleys
and suggests hypotheses for replication. It
divulges procedures, techniques, and
research designs worth copying so that a
researcher can better focus hypotheses and
gain new insights

Types of Literature Review
• Context review. A common type of review in

which the author links a specific study to a
larger body of knowledge. It often appears at
the beginning of a research report and
introduces the study by situating it within a
broader framework and showing how it
continues or builds on a developing line of
thought or study

• Historical review. A specialized review in
which the author traces an issue over time. It
can be merged with a theoretical or
methodological review to show how a
concept, theory, or research method
developed over time

• Integrative review. A common type of review
in which the author presents and summarizes
the current state of knowledge on a topic,
highlighting agreements and disagreements
within it. This review is often combined with a
context review or may be published as an
independent article as a service to other
researchers

• Methodological review. A specialized type of
integrative review in which the author
compares and evaluates the relative
methodological strength of various studies
and shows how different methodologies (e.g.,
research designs, measures, samples)
account for different results.

• Self-study review. A review in which an author
demonstrates his or her familiarity with a
subject area. It is often part of an educational
program or course requirement.

• Theoretical review. A specialized review in
which the author presents several theories or
concepts focused on the same topic and
compares them on the basis of assumptions,
logical consistency, and scope of explanation.

The literature review process
Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Steps in Literature Review
• Decide on a topic
• Identify and locate literature
• Ensure Relevance
• Record and Retrieve
• Review and summarize
• Write and revise a topic

Identifying and locating Literature
• Define your keywords

• Define the boundaries, constraints or
limitations of your search
• Time
• Types of materials (primary,
secondary and tertiary)
• Publication date
• Language
• Geographical focus

• Developing Keywords
• To identify suitable references in online databases such as the
Social Sciences Citation Index, you need to work out keywords to enter
into the search engine:
• Business dictionaries (see below for online sources) can help you to define
your area of research and identify changes in the language used to
describe the subject:
– Collins Dictionary of Business, 2nd edition (1995)
– The IEBM Dictionary of Business and Management (1999)
– e.g., the term 'personnel management' has now been largely
superseded by 'HRM' and 'payment systems' are now more widely
referred to as 'reward management'

Online Sources
• Search Engines: www.google.com; www.scholar.google.com

• Online databases:
• EBSCOhost: www.search.epnet.com
• Emerald: www.emeraldinsght.com
• JSTOR: www.jstor.org
• Palgrave MacMillan Journal: www.palgrave.journals.com
• Sage Journals Online: www.online.sagepub.com
• ScienceDirect: www.sciencedirect.com
• Wiley: www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com
• African Journal Online (AJOL): www.ajolonline.com
• Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ): http://doaj.org
• Social Science Research Network: www.ssrn.com

Literature sources available
Literature sources available
Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 3.2 Literature sources available

Reading the Existing Literature
•Start with references in bibliographies from books and journal
articles and move on to using online sources for your literature
review
•In some areas of research, there are very many references
– try to identify the major ones and work outwards from there
•Take good notes, including the details of the material you read
– it is infuriating to find that you forgot to record the volume
number of an article you need to include in your
Bibliography

• You will also need to think of synonyms and
try to match your language to that of the
source you are searching
– e.g., performance management may be referred to
in practitioner publications as 'employee
evaluation' or 'appraisal'

• You will be able to revise and refine your
research questions in the process of
reviewing the literature
• A competent critical review of the literature
can affirm your credibility as someone who is
knowledgeable in your chosen area

Issues to Identify in the Existing Literature
•What is already known about this area?
•What concepts and theories are relevant to this area?
•What research methods and research strategies have been
employed in studying this area?
•Are there any significant controversies?
•Are there any inconsistencies in findings relating to this
area?
•Are there any unanswered research questions in this area?

Critical Reading Skills
•Your literature review should be critical rather than merely
descriptive, so it is worth recording relevant critical points as you
take notes
•Developing a critical approach is not necessarily one of simply
criticizing the work of others
•It entails moving beyond mere description and asking questions
about the significance of the work:
– How does the item relate to others you have read?
– Are there any apparent strengths and deficiencies - perhaps in terms
of methodology or in terms of the credibility of the conclusions
drawn?
– What theoretical ideas have influenced the item?

Writing up your literature review:
• Write up your review part way through your reading

in order to identify gaps/weaknesses
• Keep the focus on your study and not the literature
• Make sure the structure leads the reader through
the key issues e.g. signposting
• Make sure that the literature review is framed by
your research questions
• Where possible, use original sources rather than
other people’s review of literature(s)

Plagiarism
Four common forms
• Stealing material from another source
• Submitting material written by another
• Copying material without quotation marks
• Paraphrasing material without documentation
Adapted from Park (2003), cited in Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

APA STYLE

Basic APA Research
Paper Elements
• Structure and content
• Clear and concise organization
• Mechanics of style
• Tables and figures
• Parenthetical citations
• References

Getting Started
General Document Formatting
• Setting up a Word document

– Select Font/Font Size
• Times New Roman
• Font Size 12
– 1” margins all around
• Left justified with right ragged edge
– Double spaced
• All paper elements should be double
spaced except in-text table/figure notation
• Indent the first line of all paragraphs

Title Page Elements
Header
Running head and paper title
Page numbers
Title page body

Paper Title
Your Name
Institution
The university pledge

Basic APA Elements of a
Research Paper
Abstract
Sample APA style research paper
Basic Elements of a Research Paper
Introduction
Body of paper
In-text citations
Parenthetical
Tables and figures
Conclusion
References
Reference page format
Order of source information for each resource
Order of all sources on reference page (alphabetized)
Hanging indent-5 spaces

Heading Levels
Section Headings: 6th Edition of APA
Level One Headings: Centered, bold upper and lowercase
Method
Level Two Headings: Left justified, bold upper and lowercase
Sample and Participant Selection
Level Three Headings: Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading with a period.
Personality and self-esteem.
Level Four Section Headings: Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading with
a period.
Self-esteem measurements.
Level Five Section Headings: Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading with a period.
Participant selection.

Quotation Rules
• Frame all quotes
• Punctuation goes inside quotation marks
• Block quotes:
– Any quote longer than four lines of text (or at the professor’s
discretion)
– Indent each line of the quote
– Omit quotation marks
– Single space

Tables and Figures
Table 1
Presentation
Correlations Among and Descriptive Statistics For Key Study Variables
Dist.
M (SD) Sex Age Income Educ. Relig. Intol.
Sex 1.53 (.50) .07 -.09 .02 .14 .06
Age 31.88 (10.29) .08 .19* .20* .01
Income 2.60 (1.57) .04 -.14 -.09
Education 3.44 (1.06) -.29* -.06
Relig. 1.21 (.30) -.19*
Dist. Intol. 3.75 (1.19)
Notes. N’s range from 107 to 109 due to occasional missing data. For sex, 0 = male, 1 = female.
BHF = babies hoped for. Dist. Intol. = distress intolerance. Relig. = religiosity.
* p < .05.

Figure 1. This simple path model, adapted from results in a Journal of Consumer Behaviour
paper, is an example of a figure.

Extras
• Following the supervisor’s specific instructions
• Using the MS Word References tab or other formatting software
• Whole numbers under 10 are spelled out while whole numbers over
10 are numerical.
• Use full name of source the first time and then refer to source by last
name in subsequent references
• Article titles are not framed with quotation marks in the reference list
• When there are more than three sources in a parenthetical citation,
replace all but the first name with “et al.” after the first use of that
citation
• Do not cite Wikipedia…just don’t

References
• Format for Periodicals

• Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical,
V(n), p-p.
• An Article from an Electronic Journal (E-Journal)

• Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical,
V(n), p-p. Retrieved from http://www.xxxx.
• Reference to a Magazine Article

• Chase, J. (1995, May). The wonderland economy. INC., 16-24
• Reference to a Newspaper Article

• Author, A. A. (Year, Month, day). Title of article. Name of the newspaper,
pp.

• References to Books
• Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of work. City
of Publication, State/Country: Publisher
• Author, A. A.(Ed.) (Year). Title of work. City of Publication,
State/Country: Publisher
• Author, A. A. (Year). Title of work. Retrieved from
http://www.xxxx.
• References to chapter in an edited Books
• Author, A. A (Year). Title of chapter. In A. A. Editor, B.
B. Editor, & C. C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp.
xxx-xxx) City of Publication, State/Country: Publisher

• References to a Technical and Research Reports
• Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of work (Report
Number). City of Publication, State/Country:
Publisher
• References to a Corporate Author, Government Reports
• Name of organization or Government agency (Year). Title
of report. City of Publication, State/Country: Publisher
• References to a Thesis or Dissertation
• Author, A. A. (Year). Title of thesis or dissertation.
(Master’s or/Doctoral dissertation/theis, Name of
Institution). Retrieved from http://www.xxxx.

• References to Conference Papers
• Author, A. A. (Year). Title of paper. Paper presented at (Name of
Organization/Conference, City, Country, Date(s).
• Reference to Unpublished and Informally Published Works

• Author, A. A. (Year). Title of manuscript. Unpublished manuscript or
Manuscript submitted for publication.
• Reference to Informally Published Works Online

• Author, A. A. (Year). Title of manuscript. Retrieved from http
://www.xxxx.
• Reference to a Dictionary or Encyclopaedia

• Chapman, R. L. (Ed.). (1992). Roget’s international thesaurus (5th ed.).
New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers

Conceptualisation Operationalisation
and Measurement
MEASUREMENT PROCESS
• Begins when the researcher formulates their
research problem or hypothesis.
• Measurement process consists of moving
from the abstract (concepts) to the concrete
(measure of concepts).

Conceptualization
• Concepts are words or signs that refer to

phenomena that share common
characteristics.
• Concepts are building blocks of research.
• Conceptualization – process of clarifying what
we mean by a concept. Involves providing a
theoretical or conceptual definition of the
concept.

• Specifying concepts facilitates measurement
because it allows for more refined statements
of problems and focuses your research.
• Given the hypothesis “motivation improves
employees’ performance.” Identify the
concepts and define them.

Operationalization
• This is the process of defining specific ways to infer the
occurrence of specific phenomena.
• Involves providing operational definitions --consists of the
specific questions asked, together with response categories
to which cases are assigned.
• Many operational definitions are possible. Choose the one
that fits your research question.

• When creating an operational definition, a
researcher may consider many different
empirical representations or indicators.
• Indicator -- single observable measure.

E.g. Following are five statements which you may agree or disagree.
Using the 1-7 scale shown, indicate your agreement with each item by
placing the appropriate number on the line preceding that item. Please be
open and honest in responding
7—Strongly agree
6—Agree
5--- Slightly agree
4—Neither agree nor Disagree
3—Slightly disagree
2--- Disagree
1--- Strongly disagree
__ In most ways my life is close to ideal
__ The Conditions of my life are excellent
__ I am satisfied with my life
__ So far I have gotten the important things I want in life
__If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.
Conceptualization and Measurement
Continued
Problems with Single Variables/ Indicators
1) They often contain errors of classification
2) They rarely capture all aspects of a concept
• Always best to measure complex concepts

with multiple indicators.

Following are five statements which you may agree or
disagree. Using the 1-7 scale shown, indicate your
agreement with each item by placing the appropriate
number on the line preceding that item. Please be open
and honest in responding
7—Strongly agree
6—Agree
5--- Slightly agree
4—Neither agree nor Disagree
3—Slightly disagree
2--- Disagree
1--- Strongly disagree
__ In most ways my life is close to ideal
__ The Conditions of my life are excellent
__ I am satisfied with my life
__ So far I have gotten the important things I want in life
__If I could live my life over, I would change almost
nothing
Defining Variables and Attributes
• An attribute is a characteristic or quality of

something.
• Variables are logical sets of attributes
• Conceptualization and operationalization
process can be seen as the specification of
variables and the attributes composing them

Every variable must have two important
qualities:
• Attributes composing it must be exhaustive
• Attributes composing a variable must be
mutually exclusive.

Levels of Measurements
• When we know a variable’s level of measurement

we can better understand how cases vary on that
variable and so understand more fully what we
have measured
• NOMINAL – also known as categorical or
qualitative level variable – identifies variables
whose values have no mathematical interpretation

Levels of Measurement
• ORDINAL – rank orderable measure

• INTERVAL -- represent fixed measurement
units but have no absolute zero.
• RATIO --These are variables that have a true
zero point. That is a 0 that measures the
absence of the phenomenon being measured.

Levels of measurement
• REMEMBER – do not measure things at the

ordinal level when you can measure them at
the ratio scale… measure things at the
highest level of measurement possible.

Validity and Reliability
• The extent to which measures indicate what

they are intended to measure can be
assessed with one or more of four basic
approaches.

Face Validity
• Face validation – confidence you gain from
careful inspection of a concept to see if it is
appropriate “on its face”.
• Problem– does not provide convincing
evidence of measurement of validity.

Content Validity
• Establishes that the measure covers the full
range of the concepts meaning. Researchers
will have to do more literature review and
identify the different aspects of the concept.

Construct Validity
• Established by showing that the measure is related to a
variety of other measures as specified in a theory.
Criterion Validity
• Established when the scores obtained on one measure can
be accurately compared to those obtained with a more direct
or already validated measure of the same phenomenon.

Reliability
• Refers to whether or not you get the same answer by using

an instrument to measure something more than once.
Tests for Reliability

• Test-retest – test people again and again.
• Parallel forms– investigator creates two equivalent forms of a
scale of questions and administer each form to the same
group. If the correlation between the scales is is high, then
your measure is reliable.

• Split half method – administer half the scale
to half the group and the other half of the
scale to the other half of the group. If
correlation is high, the measure is reliable.
• Internal consistency – assess that questions
test the same concept. Eg. multiple choice
test.

Selecting Samples

Selecting samples
Population, sample and individual cases
Figure 7.1 Population, sample and individual cases

The need to sample
Sampling- a valid alternative to a census when
• A survey of the entire population is impracticable
• Budget constraints restrict data collection
• Time constraints restrict data collection
• Results from data collection are needed quickly

Overview of sampling techniques
Sampling techniques
Figure H Sampling techniques Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Probability sampling
The four stage process
1. Identify sampling frame from research objectives
2. Decide on a suitable sample size
3. Select the appropriate technique and the sample
4. Check that the sample is representative

Identifying a suitable sampling frame
Key points to consider
• Problems of using existing databases
• Extent of possible generalisation from the sample
• Validity and reliability
• Avoidance of bias

Sample size
Choice of sample size is influenced by

• Confidence needed in the data
• Margin of error that can be tolerated
• Margin of error (also called The confidence interval ) is the plus-or-minus figure usually reported in
newspaper or television opinion poll results. For example, if you use a margin of error of 4 and 47% percent
of your sample picks an answer you can be "sure" that if you had asked the question of the entire relevant
population between 43% (47-4) and 51% (47+4) would have picked that answer.
• Types of analyses to be undertaken
• Size of the sample population and distribution

The importance of response rate
Key considerations
• Non- respondents and analysis of refusals
• Obtaining a representative sample
• Calculating the active response rate
• Estimating response rate and sample size

Actual Sample Size Calculation

Selecting a sampling technique
Five main techniques used for a probability

sample
• Simple random
• Systematic
• Stratified random
• Cluster
• Multi-stage

Simple random sampling
• Number each of the cases in your sampling

frame with a unique number.
• Select cases using random numbers until,
actual sample size is reached.
• Computer aided telephone interviewing
(CATI) software

Systematic Random Sampling
• Number each of the cases in your sampling frame

with a unique number.
• Select the first case using a random number
• Calculate the sampling fraction
• Select subsequent cases systematically using the
sampling fraction to determine the frequency of
selection.
• Sampling fraction = actual sample size/ total
population

Stratified random sampling
• Choose the stratification variable or variables

• Divide the sampling frame into the discrete
strata.
• Number each of the cases within each
stratum with a unique number
• Select your sample using either simple
random or systematic random sampling

Cluster sampling
• Choose the cluster grouping for your

sampling frame.
• Number each of the clusters with a unique
number.
• Select sample of clusters using random
sampling

Multi-stage sampling

Non- probability sampling (1)
Key considerations
• Deciding on a suitable sample size

– Data saturation
• Selecting the appropriate technique

Non- probability sampling (2)
Sampling techniques
• Quota sampling (larger populations)

• Purposive sampling
• Snowball sampling
• Self-selection sampling
• Convenience sampling

Quota Sampling
• Divide the population into specific groups.

• Calculate quota for each group based on
relevant and available data
• Collect data from each quota

Purposive sampling
• Extreme case/deviant sampling: unusual or

special case enable to learn the most about
the RQ.
• Heterogeneous or maximum variation
sampling: representing different subgroups
• Homogeneous sampling: One subgroup.
• Critical case sampling:
– If it happen there, it will happen everywhere.

Snowball sampling
• Make contact with one or two cases in the

population.
• Ask these cases to identify further cases.
• Ask these new case to identify further new
cases.
• Stop when either no new cases are given or
the sample is large enough.

Self select sampling
• Publicize your need for cases

• Collect data from those who respond

Haphazard sampling
• Also called purposive or availability sampling.

• Select case based on ease or convenience.

Data Collection Methods

Quantitative Research Process

Introduction
• Data collection means gathering information

to address those critical research questions
• To plan data collection, you must think about

the questions to be answered and the
information sources available.

Recall…
Statistics
Data Information
• Statistics is a tool for converting data into

information:
But where then does data come from? How is it

gathered? How do we ensure its accurate?

SOURCES OF DATA
Data Source
Primary Source Secondary Source

•Data is collected by •Data collected,
researcher himself compiled or
written by other
•Data is gathered researchers eg. books,
through questionnaire, journals, newspapers
interviews, •Any reference must
observations etc. be acknowledged

Secondary data and primary data
• Secondary data is data that have already

been collected for some other purposes,
while primary data is data which can be
collected specifically for the purpose of
answering a research question(s) and to meet
research objectives

Using secondary data for research (1)
Types of secondary data

• Documentary: are often used in research projects
that also use primary data collection methods.
However, you can also use them on their own or
with other sources of secondary data
• Surveys :refers to data collected using a survey
strategy, usually by questionnaires, that have been
already analysed for their original purpose

Multiple – source secondary data
• Multiple-source secondary data can be based

entirely on documentary or on survey
secondary or can be amalgam of the two. The
key factors is that different data sets have
been combined to form another data set prior
to your accessing the data.

Types of secondary data

Figure 8.1 Types of secondary data


• Times series for longitudinal studies: one method of
compilation is to extract and combine selected
comparable variables from a number of surveys or from
the same survey that has been repeated a number of
times to provide a time series of data to undertake a
longitudinal study.
• Cohort studies: Data also can be compiled for the same
population over time using a series of ‘snap shots’ to
form cohort studies.

• Area-based data sets: Multi- source

secondary data also can be combined , if
they have the same geographical basis, to
form area based data sets.

Evaluating secondary data (1)
Advantages
• Fewer resource requirements

• Unobtrusive
• Longitudinal studies may be feasible
• Provision of comparative and contextual data
• Unforeseen discoveries may occur
• Generally permanent and available

Disadvantages
• Purpose of data collection may not match the

research needs
• Access may be difficult or costly
• Aggregations and definitions may be unsuitable
• No real control over data quality
• Initial purpose may affect data presentation

Ensure that data sources
• Enable the research question(s) to be answered
• Enable research objectives to be met
• Have greater benefits than their associated costs
• Allow access for research

Evaluating potential secondary data sources
Figure 8.2 Evaluating potential secondary data sources


Collecting primary data through observation

Observation as a data collection method
‘Observation
involves the systematic
observation , recording, description analysis
and interpretation of people’s behaviour’

Types of observation
The two main types
• Participant observation – emphasises the

discovery of meaning attached to actions
(qualitative)
• Structured observation – is concerned with

frequency of actions (quantitative)

Participant observation (1)
Definition
‘Where the researcher attempts to participate fully

in the lives and actions of subjects, enabling
them to not merely observe what is happening
but also feeling it’
Adapted from Gill and Johnson (2002)

Choice of participant observer role
Determining factors
• Purpose of the research and time available

• Degree of suitability felt by the researcher
• Organisational access
• Ethical considerations

Data collection and analysis (3)
Points to consider
• Threats to validity
• The perspective of the subject - not the researcher
• Advantages and disadvantages of participant

observation (Read on that)

Advantages
• It is good at explaining “what is going on” in particular

social situation.
• It heightens the researcher’s awareness of significant
social process.
• It is particularly useful for researchers working within
their own organization.
• Some participant observation affords the opportunity
for the researcher to the experience ‘for real’ the
emotions of those who are being researched.
• Virtually all data collected are useful.

Disadvantages
• It can be very time consuming.

• It can pose difficult ethical dilemmas for the researchers.
• They can be high levels of role conflict for the researcher.
• The closeness of the researcher to the situation being
observed can lead to significant observer bias .
• The participant observer role is a very demanding one, to
which not all researchers will be suited
• Access to organizations may be difficult.
• Data recording is often very difficult for the researcher.

Collecting primary data using semi-structured,
in-depth and group interviews

Research interviews
Definition
‘An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more

people’
Kahn and Cannell (1957)
Types of interview used in research
Semi-structured Structured
In-depth Group

Research purpose and strategy (1)
Forms of interview
Figure 10.1 Forms of interview


Types of interview
• Structured interviews: use questionnaire based on a

predetermined and ‘standardized’ or identical set of
questions and we refer to them as interviewer administered
questionnaires.
• Semi-structure interviews: the researcher will have a list of
themes and questions to be covered, although these may
vary from interview to interview. This means that you may
omit some questions in particular interviews, given a
specific organizational context that is encountered in
relation to the research topic. The order of questions also
be varied depending on the flow of conversation.

Continued
• On the other hand, additional questions may be required to

explore your research question and objectives given the
nature of events within particular organizations.
• Unstructured interviews: are informal. You would use these
to explore in-depth a general area in which you are
interested . We therefore, refer to these as in-depth
interviews. There is no predetermined list of questions to
work through in this situation, although you need to have a
clear idea about the aspect or aspects that you want to
explore. The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk
freely about events behavior and beliefs in relation to topic
area.

Interview and type of research
• In an exploratory research study, in-depth interviews can
be very helpful to find out what is happening and to seek
new insight. Semi structured interviews may be used in
relation to an exploratory study.
• In descriptive studies structured interviews can be used as
a means to identify general patterns.
• In an explanatory study, semi structured interviews can be
used in order to understand the relationships between
variables, such as those revealed from a descriptive study.
• Structured interview may also be used in relation to an
explanatory study, in statistical sense.

Research purpose and strategy (2)
Uses of different types of interview in each of the main

research categories
Table 10.1 Uses of different types of interview in each of theSaunders et al. (2009)
main research
categories

Non-standardised (qualitative) interviews
Four key aspects
• Purpose of the research
• Significance of establishing personal contact
• Nature of the data collection questions
• Time required and completeness of process

Interview preparation (1)
Associated issues
• Interviewer’s level of knowledge
• Level of information supplied to interviewees
• Creating an interview guide
• Appropriateness of location

Associated issues
• Researcher’s appearance – dress code
• Shaping the interview - opening comments
• Approach to questioning – clarity and reducing bias
• Use of critical incident technique

Associated issues
• Appropriate interviewer behaviour- verbal and non-verbal
• Attentive listening skills and testing understanding
• Approaches to data recording - notes and tape-recording
• Cultural differences and bias

Interviewing competence
• There are several areas where you need to develop and

demonstrate competence in relation to conduct of semi
structured and in-depth research interview . These areas are:
• Opening the interview;
• Using appropriate language;
• Questioning;
• Listening;
• Testing and summarizing understanding;
• Recording and dealing with difficult participants;
• recording data.

Interviewing competence (1)
Approaches to questioning
Open questions Probing questions
Specific and closed questions

Open questions
• The use of open question will allow participants to

define and describe the situation or event. An
open is designed to encourage the interviewee to
provide an extensive and developmental answer
and may be used to reveal attitudes or obtain
facts. It encourage s the interviewee to reply as
they wish. An open question is likely to start with
or include, one of the following words: ‘what’, or
‘how’, or ‘why’,.

Propping questions
• Can be used to explore responses that are of

significance to the research topic. They may
be worded like open questions but request a
particular focus or direction.

Specific and closed questions
• These types of questions are simpler to those

used in structured interviews. They can be
used to obtain specific information or to
confirm a fact or opinion.

Advantages and disadvantages of audio-recording

interviews
Table 10.3 Advantages and disadvantages of audio-recording the interview


Additional forms of interviews:
• Group interviews
• Focus groups
• Telephone interviews
• Internet and intra-net mediated interviews

Collecting primary data using

questionnaires

Introduction
• Questionnaire is a general term that

includes all techniques of data collection in
which each person is asked to respond to the
same set of questions in a pre-determined order.
It therefore includes both structured interviews
and telephone questionnaires as well as those in
which the questions are answered without an
interviewer being present.
Introduction
• As each person (respondent) is asked to
respond to the same set of questions, it
provides an efficient way of collecting
responses from a large sample prior to
quantative analyses.
Introduction
• However, it is harder to produce a good

questionnaire than you might think:
• You need to ensure that it will collect the
precise data that you require to answer your
research question and achieve your
objectives.
• You will be unable to go to those anonymus
individuals and collect additional data using
another questionnaire.

Introduction
Important steps are:

Careful design of individual questions
Clear layout of the questionnaire form
Detailed explanation of the purpose of the
questionnaire
Carefully planned and executed
administration

Questionnaire Techniques
• Questionnaires can be used as the only data

collection method, but also it is usually better
to link them with other methods, such as in-
depth interviews.

Types of Questionnaire
• The design of a questionnaire

differs according to how it is administered
and the amount of contact you have with the
respondents.
Types of Questionnaires
• Self-administered questionnaires
are usually completed by the respondents.
Such questionnaires are administered
electronically using the Internet, posted to
respondents who return them by post after
completion.
Types of Questionniares
• Responses to interviewer-
administrated questionnaires are
recorded by the interviewer on the basis of
each respondent’s answers.
The choice of questionnaire
• Characteristics of the respondents from

whom you wish to collect data
• Importance of reaching a particular person as
respondent
• Importance of respondents’ answers not
being contaminated or distorted

• Types of questions you need to ask to collect

your data
• Number of questions you need to ask to
collect your data.
• Size of sample you require for your analysis,
taking into account the likely response rate

BE CAREFUL
• Respondents to self-administrated
questionnaires can discuss their answers with
others
• Responses can be distorted when recorded
• If the respondents have insufficient
knowledge or experience, they may
deliberately guess at the answer

Research design requirements
• Unlike semi-structured interviews, the

questions you ask in questionnaires need to
be defined precisely prior to data collection.
• Quesitonnaire offers only one
chance to collect data

•Before designing your questionnaire, you

must review the literature carefully and
discuss your ideas with other experts.
• You also need to be clear about which

relationships you think are likely to exist
between variables:
• Dependent variable: It changes in
response to changes in other variables
• Independent variable: It causes
changes in dependent variables

Types of variable
• Opinion variables record how respondents feel

about something or what they think or believe is true
or false
• However, when recording what respondents do, you
are recording their behaviours, a concrete
experience.
• Attribute variables contain data about the
respondents characteristics; things a respondent
possesses, rather than things a respondent does.

Designing individual questions
• You need to consider the type and wording of

the questions. Your wording should be clear
and understandable to respondents.
• Most types of questionnaire include a
combination of open and closed ended
questions.

Open questions
• Open-ended questions are used widely in in-depth

and semi-structured interviews. In questionnaires
they are useful if you are unsure of the response.
Example:
6.Please list up to three things you like about your
job
1. ……………………………
2. ……………………………
3. ……………………………

Open questions
• With open questions the precise wording of

the question and the amount of space
partially determine the length and the fullness
of the response. However if you leave too
much space, the question becomes off-
putting. Therefore, it is better to keep their
use to minimum.

Close ended questions
Divided mainly into six types:

List questions
Category questions
Ranking questions
Rating questions
Quantity questions

List questions
• List questions offer the respondent a list

of responses, any of which they can choose.
The list of responses must be defined clearly
and meaningfully to the respondent. You may
also wish to add a catch-all category of
‘other’.

List questions
Example:
7.What is your religion?
Please tick the appropriate box
Buddhist
Christian
Hindu
Jewish
Muslim
None
Other
(please say):…………………….

Category questions
• Category questions are designed so that

each respondent’s answer can fit only one
category. It is better to limit the categories
between five and eight.
• You should arrange responses in a logical order
so that it is easy to locate the response. Your
categories should not overlap, and should
cover all possible responses.

Category questions
Example
8.How often do you visit this shopping center?

First visit
Once a week
Less than fortnightly to once a month
2 or more times a week
Less than once a week to fortnightly
Less often

Ranking questions
• A ranking question asks the

respondent to place things into rank order.
This means that you can discover their
relative importance to the respondent.
• Make sure the instructions are clear and will
be understood by the respondent. Your list
should be at the most seven or eight items.

Ranking questions
Example:
9.Please number each of the factors listed below in order of
importance to you in your choice of a new car. Number
the most important 1, next 2 and so on. If a factor has no
importance at all, please leave blank.
Factor Importance
Acceleration ()
Boot size ()
Depreciation ()
Safety features ()
Fuel economy ()
Price ()
Driving enhoyment ()
Other ()
.....................................(please describe)

Rating questions
• Rating questions are often used to collect

opinion data. The respondent is asked how
strongly he/she agrees or disagrees with a
statement , usually on a four-, five-, six-or
seven-point scale. You should include both
positive and negative statements so as to
ensure that respondents reads each one
carefully and think about which box to tick.

Rating questions
Example
10.For the following statement please tick the box
that matches your view closely.
agree tend to agree tend to disagree disagree

I feel that employees’
views have influenced
the decisions taken by
management

Rating questions
Example
12.For the following statement please circle the number
that matches your view most closely.
This concert was..
Good value 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Poor value

for money for money

Quantity questions
• The response to a quantity question is a

number, which gives the amount of a
characteristic. Such questions tend to be
used to collect behaviour or attribute data.

Quantity questions
Example:
14.What is your year of birth?
1 9
1 9 8 0
(for example, for
1980, write:)

Quantity questions
Example:
• For each of the following statements please
tick the box that most closely matches your
experience.. monthly every 3 every 6 never
months months
23. I receive a company site newsletter..
24.I receive other company publications..

Question wording
Ask yourself;
• Can your question be shortened?
• Are you asking more than one question at a
time?
• Does your question imply that a certain answer
is correct?
• Are there any words in your question that might
cause offence?
• Will all words be understood by all respondents
in the same way?

Question coding
• If you are planning to analyse your data by

computer, they will need to be coded prior to
entry. For quantity questions, actual numbers
can be used as codes. For other questions
you will need to design a coding schema.

Designing the survey form
• The order and flow of questions: To

assist the flow of the survey, it may be
necessary to include filter questions.
These identify those respondents for whom the
following question/s are not applicable, so they
can skip those questions. But be careful about
not using more than two or three filter
questions as resposndents might be annoyed.

Example for filter question:
19.Are you currently registered as employed?

Yes
No
If ‘no’ go to question 25

• The layout of questionnaire:

Interviewer administered questionnaires
should be designed to make reading
questions and filling in responses easy.
The layout of the self-administered
questionnaires should be attractive enough to
encourage the respondent to fill it in, while
not appearing too long.

• The layout of questionnaire:

Do not make the questionnaire longer than is
really necessary to meet your research
question and objectives.
Do not be too obsessed with the length of your
questionnaire.
In general, a length between four and eight A4
pages is acceptable.

Business Research Skills
Designing Questionnaires
DO’s and DON’Ts

Introduction
• It’s usually best to start a survey with general

questions that will be easy for a respondent to
answer.
• It’s usually best to ask any sensitive questions,
including demographics (especially income),
near the end of the survey.
• Begin with non-threatening, easy to answer questions.

How long have you been with BSC Computer Services?
_____ yrs
• Make your items as brief as possible.
• Emphasize the crucial words in each item.

• Group items into coherent categories.
How long have you been a supervisor?

____under 2 years
____2 to 8 years
____9 to 15 years
____over 16years
• Leave space for comments, as well as, to make it appear less cluttered

• Provide variety in the type of items used.
• a. b. c.
• True/False
• Rank 1-4….

• Don’t use negatively worded question if

possible
Do you feel that working with this

company is stressful?
____ yes
____ no

• Don’t use double barreled items
This program has increased the capability

of performing current or future job tasks.
____ True
____ False

• Don’t include extraneous or unnecessary items. Don’t bias respondents

by hinting to a desired response. Don’t use ambiguous, bureaucratic,
technical or colloquial language.
Do you agree that the management team is

fair to all employees?
______ yes
______ no

• Don’t put important items at the end.

List below how you feel the issue can be resolved:
• Don’t ask questions to which you already know the

answers.
Project Management Training is available to
Supervisors?
____ yes
____ no

QUANTITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
• Variable attributes: the characteristics or

qualities that describe a variable
• Variable attributes can be defined at four
different levels of measurement
– Nominal
– Ordinal
– Interval
– Ratio

Nominal Measurement
• The lowest level of measurement

• Attributes or response categories of a
variable are
– mutually exclusive

Ordinal Measurement
• Second highest level of measurement

• Attributes or responses categories or a
variable are
– Mutually exclusive
– Rank ordered

Interval Measurement
• Third highest level of measurement

variable are
– Rank ordered
– Equal distance from each other

Ratio Measurement
• Highest level of measurement

variable are
– Rank ordered
– Equal distance from each other
– Based on a true 0 point

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
• Variables must be coded (assigned a distinct

value) for data to be processed by computer
software
• The researcher must know the level of
measurement for each variable to determine
which statistical tests to use

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
• Summarize a variable of interest and portray

how that particular variable is distributed in
the sample or population
– Frequency distributions
– Measures of Central Tendency
– Measures of Variability

Frequency Distributions
• A counting of the occurrences of each

response value of a variable, which can be
presented in
– Table form
– Graphic form (Frequency Polygon)

Measures of Central Tendency
• The value that represents the typical or

average score in a sample or population
• Three types:
– Mode, Median, and Mean
• Normal Curve: a bell-shaped frequency
polygon in which the mean, median, and
mode represent the average equally (See
Figure 17.4)

Mode
• The score or response value that occurs most

often (i.e., has the highest frequency) in a
sample or population
• Minimum level of measurement is nominal

Median
• The score or response value that divides the

a distribution into two equal halves
• Minimum level of measurement is ordinal

Mean
• Calculated by summing individual scores and

dividing by the total number of scores
• The most sophisticated measure of central
tendency
• Minimum level of measurement is interval

Measures of Variability
• A value or values that indicated how widely

scores are distributed in a sample or
population; a measure of dispersion
• Two common types
– Range
– Standard Deviation

Range
• The distance between the minimum and

maximum score in a distribution
• The larger the range, the greater the amount
of variation of scores in a distribution
• Minimum level of measurement is ordinal

Standard Deviation
• A mathematically calculated value that

indicates the degree to which scores in a
distribution are scattered or dispersed about
the mean
• The mean and standard deviation define the
basic properties of the normal curve
• Minimum level of measurement is interval

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
• Make it possible to study a sample and “infer”

the findings of that study to the population
from which the sample was randomly drawn
• Based on chance or probability of error
– Commonly accepted levels of chance are p
< .01 (1 in 100) and p < .05 (5 in 100)

Statistics that Determine Associations
• Statistics that determine whether or not a

relationship exists between two variables
• The values of one variable co-vary with the
values of another variable
– Chi-square (2)
– Correlation (r)

Chi-Square (2)
• Used with nominal or ordinal levels of

measurement
• Provides a measure of association based on
observed (actual scores) and expected
(statistically estimated) frequencies
• The direction or strength of the relationship
between the two variables is not specified

Correlation (r)
• Typically used with interval and ratio levels of

measurement
• A measure of association between two
variables that also indicates direction and
strength of the relationship
– r=0 (no relationship), r=1.00 (perfect relationship)
– A +r value (a direct relationship), -r value (an
inverse relationship)

Statistics that Determine Differences
• Statistics used to determine whether group

differences exist on a specified variable
• Differences between
– Two related groups: Dependent t-test
– Two unrelated groups: Independent t-test
– More than two groups: ANOVA

Dependent t-test
• Used to compare two sets of scores provided

by one group of individuals
– Example: pretest and posttest scores

Independent t-test
• Used to compare two sets of scores, each

provided by a different group of individuals
– Example: Fathers and Mothers

One-Way Analysis of Variance
• Used to compare three or more sets of

scores, each provided by a different group of
individuals
– Example: Fathers, Mothers, and Children

Writing and presenting your project report

Getting started with writing
Practical hints
• Create time for your writing

• Write when your mind is fresh
• Find a regular writing place
• Set goals and achieve them
• Use word processing
• Generate a plan for the report
• Finish each writing session on a high point
• Get friends to read and comment on your work

Structuring your research report
Suggested structure
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Method
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusions
• References
• Appendices

Writing for different audiences
Key differences between an ‘Academic’ report

and a ‘Consultancy’ or ‘Management’ report
The academic report:

• Tends to be longer
• Will be marked and graded
• Will contain contextual descriptions
The consultancy report:

• Has less focus on the development of theory
• Contains recommendations relating to the organisation’s business

Report structure (1)
The abstract
Four short paragraphs that answer the questions:
1. What were my research questions and why were they

important?
2. How did I go about answering the research questions?
3. What did I find out in response to these questions?
4. What conclusions can be drawn?
Adapted from Saunders et al. (2009)

Introduction - include
• The research questions(s) and a clear statement of

research objectives
• Brief background and a guide to the storyline
Literature review - purpose
• To set your study in the wider context

• To show how your study supplements existing work

Developed from Robson (2002)

Results chapter(s) - purpose
• To report the facts your research discovered

• To support the facts with quotes from participants
Discussion chapter- purpose
• To interpret results and relate the findings to the original research goals
and objectives
• Relate your findings to that of similar studies conducted elsewhere
• To indicate implications of the research

Using a matrix in the planning of the content for the results and
conclusions chapters
Figure 14.1 Using a matrix in the planning of the content for the results and
conclusions chapters Saunders et al. (2009)

Conclusion chapter – purpose
• To answer the research question(s)

• To meet the research objectives
• To consider the findings
• To present any contributions to the topic displayed in the
literature
• To reflect on any implications for future research

References
• Use a convention that is accepted by your university (e.g. Harvard, APA)

• Cite all sources referred to in the text
• Check all citations to prevent plagiarism
Appendices
• Include only essential supporting material

• Include copies of interview schedules
• Keep appendices to a minimum

Organising the report content (2)
Main points to consider
• Choosing the title
• Telling a clear story
• Helping the reader by-

Dividing your work
Previewing and summarising chapters
Using suitable tables and graphics
Writing in a suitable style

Writing style
Key points:
• Clarity and simplicity – avoid jargon
• Checking grammar and spelling
• Preserving anonymity
• Regularly revising each draft

Evaluating the first draft
Checklist Box 14.11
Complete the Checklist in Box 14.11

to help you evaluate the first draft

Oral presentation
Three key stages:
• Planning and preparation
• Use of visual aids
• Presenting

Reminder: Online Resources
Check out the student insights into the research process at:
www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/brymanbrm4e/

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Business Research Methods

© Oxford University Press, 2015. All rights reserved.

This chapter introduces:

• Business research methods in context.

• The elements of the research process.

• The messiness of business research.

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

“Something that people undertake in order to find out things in a systematic

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• • What is Business Research?

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Data for the research is collected

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• According to Easterby-Smith et al. (2002) (as cited in Saunders,

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon, problem or to

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Without research the common sources of perceptions,

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• There are eleven types of research depending on

• Futuristic research is the systematic study of possible future

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Explanatory research: Explanatory research

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Predictive research: If we can provide a

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Analytical research: The researcher has to

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Qualitative research: It is concerned with qualitative

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Conceptual research: Conceptual research

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Empirical research: It is appropriate when

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Experiment: The researcher will manipulate an independent variable

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Qualitative research Understanding of human behavior and the

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

Acquire Analyze & Provide

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

Do Not Conduct Business Research

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Ethics are norms or behaviour in maintaining

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• Non-disclosure items, Protection of

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• A formal logical explanation of some events

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

• A coherent set of general propositions used

• A proposition is the relationship between two

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition

Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition