LOGIC

LESSON #1: INTRODUCTION: LOGIC AND CRITICAL

THINKING

INTRODUCTION
IT SEEMS THAT PEOPLE DON’T LIKE RULES AS THEY REPRESENT A KIND OF
RESTRICTIONS, BUT IN FACT LIFE CAN’T BE ORGANIZED WITHOUT RULES.
PEOPLE ALWAYS NEED RULES AND LAWS TO BE ABLE TO LIVE AND DEAL
TOGETHER. CAN YOU IMAGINE EVEN A GAME WITHOUT RULES; OF COURSE,
IT WILL BE A KIND OF MESS. WHEN THEY ARE PLAYING A GAME, THEY MUST
FOLLOW ITS RULES OR IT WILL BE UNFAIR. ALSO, EVERYTHING IN OUR LIFE
SHOULD BE RESTRICTED WITH RULES OR IT BECOMES A MESS AND UNFAIR.
IF THERE ARE NO RULES AND EVERYONE IS FREE TO DO WHATEVER THEY
WANT, MOST PEOPLE WILL PROBABLY BEHAVE SELFISHLY. WE NEED RULES
TO HELP US GET A LONG TOGETHER AND SHOW RESPECT TO EACH OTHER.
• ALL THE RULES AND LAWS HAVE THE SAME
PURPOSE. THEY ORGANIZED THE RELATIONS
BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS AND THE SOCIETY
TO MAKE IT CLEAR WHAT IS RIGHT AND
WRONG AND WHAT HAPPENS IF SOMEONE
BREAKS THE RULES. THEY ARE DESIGNED TO
ENSURE FAIRNESS, SAFETY AND RESPECT
FOR OTHER PEOPLE’S RIGHT.
 A. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

• THE WORD "PHILOSOPHY" COMES

FROM THE ANCIENT GREEK
(PHILOSOPHIA), WHICH LITERALLY
MEANS "LOVE OF WISDOM".
• THE STUDY OF THE
FUNDAMENTAL NATURE OF
KNOWLEDGE, REALITY, AND
EXISTENCE, ESPECIALLY WHEN
CONSIDERED AS AN ACADEMIC
DISCIPLINE.
•IS THE STUDY OF GENERAL
AND FUNDAMENTAL
PROBLEMS, SUCH AS THOSE
CONNECTED WITH REALITY,
EXISTENCE, KNOWLEDGE,
VALUES, REASON, MIND,
AND LANGUAGE.
• THE STUDY OF THE THEORETICAL
BASIS OF A PARTICULAR BRANCH OF
KNOWLEDGE OR EXPERIENCE.
• "THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE"
• IS AN ACTIVITY PEOPLE UNDERTAKE WHEN
THEY SEEK TO UNDERSTAND FUNDAMENTAL
TRUTHS ABOUT THEMSELVES, THE WORLD IN
WHICH THEY LIVE AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS
TO THE WORLD AND TO EACH OTHER.
 WHY PHILOSOPHY IMPORTANT?
•
 IT BELONGS IN THE LIVES OF EVERYONE.
•  IT HELPS US SOLVE OUR PROBLEMS -
MUNDANE OR ABSTRACT.
•  IT HELPS US MAKE BETTER DECISIONS
BY DEVELOPING OUR CRITICAL THINKING
(VERY IMPORTANT IN THE AGE OF
DISINFORMATION).
 C. WHAT IS LOGIC?

• LOGIC

• IS A TOOL TO DEVELOP REASONABLE

CONCLUSIONS BASED ON A GIVEN SET
OF DATA. LOGIC IS FREE OF EMOTION
AND DEALS VERY SPECIFICALLY WITH
INFORMATION IN ITS PUREST FORM.
• IS A METHOD OF REASONING
THAT INVOLVES A SERIES OF
STATEMENTS, EACH OF WHICH
MUST BE TRUE IF THE STATEMENT
BEFORE IT IS TRUE
.
• MAYBE DEFINED AS THE STUDY OF
FORMAL LOGICAL SYSTEMS.
• THE BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY
CONCERNED WITH ANALYZING
THE PATTERNS OF REASONING BY
WHICH A CONCLUSION IS
PROPERLY DRAWN FROM A SET OF
PREMISES, WITHOUT REFERENCE
TO MEANING OR CONTEXT.
REASONING; SCIENCE WHICH
DESCRIBES RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG PROPOSITIONS IN
TERMS OF IMPLICATION,
CONTRADICTION,
CONTRARIETY, CONVERSION,
ETC.
 D. WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY LOGIC?
• LOGIC AND REASONING ARE IMPORTANT IN CAREER TRAINING
AND DEVELOPMENT ON THE JOB.
• IN MANAGEMENT, ADMINISTRATION, LAW, FINANCE, AND
OTHER DISCIPLINES, LOGIC AND REASONING ARE ESSENTIAL.
• WE WILL BE ABLE TO BROADEN THE RANGE OF THINGS WE
KNOW AND UNDERSTAND, BE ABLE TO RECEIVE SELF-KNOWLEDGE,
FORESIGHT AND A SENSE OF DIRECTION IN OUR DAILY LIVES.
• WE CAN ACCOMPLISH SELF-DISCOVERY, EXPANSION OF
CONSCIOUSNESS, AND SELF-RENEWAL.
 E. IMPORTANCE OF LOGIC AND REASONING

• GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVING: IT HELPS US

TO ANALYZE CONCEPTS, DEFINITIONS,
ARGUMENTS AND PROBLEMS, AND
CONTRIBUTES TO OUR CAPACITY TO
ORGANIZE IDEAS AND ISSUES TO DEAL
WITH QUESTIONS OF VALUE.
• COMMUNICATION SKILLS: HERE OUR
SKILLS WILL BE ENHANCED AS WE
ARE ABLE TO PRESENT IDEAS
THROUGH WELL-CONSTRUCTED
SYSTEMATIC AND REASONED
ARGUMENTS.
• PERSUASIVE POWERS: WE WILL LEARN
TO BUILD AND DEFEND OUR OWN
VIEWS, TO APPRECIATE COMPETING
POSITIONS, AND TO INDICATE
FORCEFULLY WHY WE CONSIDER OUR
OWN VIEWS PREFERABLE TO
ALTERNATIVES.
• WRITING SKILLS: PHILOSOPHICAL LOGIC AND
REASONING TEACHES US INTERPRETIVE
WRITING THROUGH ITS EXAMINATION OF
CHALLENGING TEXTS, COMPARATIVE
WRITINGS THROUGH EMPHASIS ON FAIRNESS
TO ALTERNATIVE POSITIONS,
ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING THROUGH
DETAILED PORTRAYAL OF CONCRETE
EXAMPLES AND OTHERS.
 F. THE NATURE OF LOGIC
• SPONTANEOUS LOGIC: ALL OUR
ACTIONS ALWAYS REFLECT THE ORDER
PUT INTO IT BY THE INTELLIGENCE.
MAN DOES NOT ACT PURELY ON
INSTINCT LOGICAL OR RATIONAL
ORDER IS THE ORDER REFLECTED IN
MAN’S ACTIONS CHARACTERIZED BY
THE OPERATIONS OF THE INTELLECT
ALSO KNOWN AS “SPONTANEOUS
• THE ART OF LOGIC: ART IS A PERSONAL
COMPETENCE TO CARRY OUT SOME ACTIVITY
LIKE DANCING, INTERACTING, OR PLAYING
BASKETBALL. THOMAS AQUINAS DEFINES LOGIC
AS THE ART THAT DIRECTS THE REASONING
PROCESS SO THAT MAN MAY ATTAIN KNOWLEDGE
OF THE TRUTH IN AN ORDERLY WAY, WITH EASE
AND WITHOUT ERROR
• THE SCIENCE OF LOGIC: LOGIC
EXPLORES THE COMPLEX WORLD OF
OUR IDEAS, JUDGMENTS, AND
REASONING PROCESSES, INSOFAR AS
THESE MENTAL OPERATIONS ASSIST
US APPREHEND THE REALITY.
• THE LIMITS OF LOGIC: LOGIC IS A MERE TOOL OF
REASON- IT HIGHLIGHTS CONCEPTS, PROPOSITIONS,
ARGUMENTS, THE SUBJECT-PREDICATE RELATIONSHIP,
THE RELATIONSHIP OF DIFFERENT TERMS OF SYLLOGISM,
THE LOGICAL SEQUENCE OF PROPOSITIONS AND SO ON,
BUT OFFERS NO DIRECT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
CONTENT OF OUR THOUGHTS. EXTRA-LOGICAL MEANS
OF ATTAINING TRUTH- IT GUIDES OUR THOUGHTS IN
ATTAINING THE TRUTH WHEREIN IT HAS NO MEANS OF
CONTROL SUCH AS IN THE AREA OF EXPERIENCE AND
INSIGHT INTO PRINCIPLES. AUTHORITY – LOGIC
CONSTITUTES AN INDIRECT BEARING ONLY ON THE
ACCEPTANCE OF STATEMENTS ON AUTHORITY.
 DIVISION OF LOGIC
• SIMPLE APPREHENSION: IS THE ACT
BY WHICH THE INTELLECT GRASPS
OR APPREHENDS THE ESSENCE OF A
PARTICULAR THING (GLENN, 1957).
THIS ACT PRODUCES CONCEPTS OR
IDEAS WHICH ARE MATERIALIZED
THROUGH TERMS.
• JUDGMENT: IS THE ACT BY WHICH THE
INTELLECT PRONOUNCES UPON THE
AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT
BETWEEN TWO IDEAS, WHICH THE MIND
HAS FORMED AND COMPARED (GLENN,
1957). JUDGMENT PRODUCES
ENUNCIATION AND IS EXTERNALIZED
THROUGH A PROPOSITION (A STATEMENT
EXPRESSING TRUTH).
• REASONING: IS THE ACT BY WHICH THE
INTELLECT RELATES SEVERAL
JUDGMENTS TO ARRIVE AT A NEW
JUDGMENT THAT NECESSARILY
FOLLOWS FROM THE RELATIONSHIPS
ESTABLISHED (RIVAS & NAEL, 2006).
THE PRODUCT OF REASONING IS
ARGUMENT AND ITS MATERIAL
EXPRESSION IS SYLLOGISM.
I. LESSON #2: CRITICAL THINKING: FIRST MENTAL
ACT [APPREHENSION] CONCEPTS, TERMS,
LANGUAGE, AND DEFINITION.
DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 DISCUSS THE MEANING OF SIMPLE
APPREHENSION AND ESSENCE;
 CLASSIFY CONCEPTS ACCORDING TO THEIR
RELATION, COMPREHENSION, AND ORIGIN; AND
 DISCUSS COMPREHENSION AND EXTENSION AND
THEIR INVERSE RELATIONSHIP.
INTRODUCTION:

Apprehension is the act of the mind wherein it understands or

comprises knowledge on the nature or essence of a thing
without affirming or negating anything.
 A. THE NATURE OF WORD / CONCEPT

• UNIVERSAL ESSENCE: IS THAT WHICH CAN

BE APPLIED TO EACH AND EVERY MEMBER OF A
CLASS REGARDLESS OF THE INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES EXISTING AMONG THEM.
• INDIVIDUAL ESSENCE: COMPRISES THE
ESSENTIAL (UNIVERSAL ESSENCE) AND
ACCIDENTAL QUALITIES OF A THING. ACCIDENTAL
FEATURES ARE THOSE WHICH DIFFER AMONG
ENTITIES FROM THE SAME CLASS.
B. KINDS OF CONCEPTS
1. ACCORDING TO RELATION,
CONCEPTS MAYBE
CATEGORIZED AS IDENTICAL
OR SIMILAR, COMPATIBLE OR
INCOMPATIBLE, AND RELATIVE
OR PRIVATIVE (AGAOAY, 1991).
• A. IDENTICAL CONCEPTS
ARE THOSE HAVING THE
SAME COMPREHENSION AND
EXTENSION. (SAME
CONCEPTUAL FEATURES.)
B. SIMILAR CONCEPTS ARE THOSE
HAVING THE EXTENSION BUT DIFFERENT
COMPREHENSION. (DIFFERENT
CONCEPTUAL FEATURES)
• EX. WRITER AND JOURNALIST
• TEACHER AND PROFESSOR
PERTINENT Pertinent –SOMEHOW
AND RELaTED TO EACH
IMPERTINENT OTHER
(REFER TO
DIFFERENT IMPERTINENT –
BUT NEITHER RELATED NOR
RELATED OPPOSED TO EACH
OBJECTS) OTHER
 c. Compatible concepts are those expressing
features which maybe present simultaneously in
one individual or subject.

ex a. Rich and humble

b. Intelligent and
c. Kind and simple
beautiful
• D. INCOMPATIBLE CONCEPTS ARE THOSE
EXPRESSING FEATURES WHICH CANNOT
BE PRESENT TOGETHER AND
SIMULTANEOUSLY IN ONE INDIVIDUAL
OR SUBJECT.
EXAMPLES: SICK AND HEALTHY
WISE AND STUPID
RICH AND POOR
 Contradictory –negation

Black- non-black
open- non-opened
TYPES OF
INCOMPATIBL Contrary –opposition
E CONCEPTS

Black-white (extreme opposites)

Open –closed
Privative –absence

Ex. Sight-blindness (absence of sight)

Correlative – complementariness

Man-woman
RULE FOR CONTRADICTORY
IDEAS:
IF ONE IS TRUE, THE OTHER IS FALSE AND VICE –VERSA.
 • IF ONE IS TRUE, THE OTHER IS
FALSE BUT NOT-VICE-VERSA. (IF
RULES FOR ONE ID FALSE , THE OTHER IS
DOUBTFUL)
CONTRARY
IDEAS:
The shirt is black. (true)
The shirt is non-black. (false)
The shirt is black. False)
the shirt is white. (doubtful , it
could be yellow, red, etc.).
 2. ACCORDING TO COMPREHENSION,
CONCEPTS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO
CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT AND SIMPLE
AND COMPOUND (AGAPAY, 1991).

• A. CONCRETE CONCEPTS SIGNIFY SOME NATURE OR

QUALITY AS FOUND RESIDING IN AN INDIVIDUAL OR
SUBJECT.
EXAMPLES: ANIMAL
DOG
CHALK
• . ABSTRACT CONCEPTS SIGNIFY NATURE OR
QUALITY AS THOUGH IT EXISTS ON ITS OWN
RIGHT AND APART FROM AN INDIVIDUAL OR
SUBJECT.
• EX.
• PURENESS
• LOVE
ACCORDING TO COMPREHENSION

• SIMPLE AND COMPOUND (STRUCTURE)

• C. SIMPLE CONCEPTS ARE THOSE WHICH
HAVE ONLY ONE NOTE IN THEIR
COMPREHENSION. (EXPRESS A SINGLE
CONCEPTUAL FEATURE, APPLICABLE TO
ALL IF NOT MOST.
EX. REALITY
• ENTITY
•
• D. COMPOUND CONCEPTS ARE THOSE WHICH HAVE MORE
THAN ONE NOTE IN THEIR COMPREHENSION. (EXPRESS
SEVERAL CONCEPTUAL ELEMENTS /FEATURES.
• EXAMPLES: MAN – SUBSTANCE, MATERIAL,
LIVING, SENTIENT, RATIONAL
• STUDENT – BEING, HUMAN,
LEARNER, ENROLLED IN SCHOOL
• LAW – ORDINANCE OF REASON,
PROMULGATED, FOR THE COMMON GOOD
 3. ACCORDING TO ORIGIN, CONCEPTS ARE
IDENTIFIED AS REAL OR ARBITRARY, AND
IMMEDIATE OR MEDIATE.
• A.REAL CONCEPTS ARE THOSE WHICH ARE DERIVED
FROM FACTUAL REALITY.
EXAMPLES: WOMAN
LABORER
LAWYER
• B. ARBITRARY CONCEPTS (PHANTASM) ARE THOSE
WHICH ARE DERIVED FROM THE IMAGINATION AS
MENTAL FABRICATION OR FICTION.
• EXAMPLES: MERMAID
• SUPERMAN
• DARNA
• C. IMMEDIATE CONCEPTS ARE THOSE WHICH ARE
DERIVED FROM DIRECT PERCEPTION OF THINGS.
• EXAMPLES: MYSELF
• THIS TABLE
• DOCTOR
• D. MEDIATE CONCEPTS ARE THOSE WHICH
ARE DERIVED FROM OTHER CONCEPTS.
• EXAMPLES: GOD
• DEVIL
• SUPREME CREATOR
• C. PROPERTIES OF CONCEPTS. CONCEPTS HAVE COMPREHENSION AND EXTENSION, WHICH REFER TO THEIR
QUALITIES AND THE THINGS TO WHICH THEY APPLY RESPECTIVELY.

• 1. COMPREHENSION (OR CONNOTATION) IS THE SUM TOTAL OF THE

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTIC COMPREHENDED AND GRASPED BY
THE MIND IN AN IDEA (REYES, 1988).
• EXAMPLE: THE IDEA MAN REPRESENTS AN ESSENCE
THAT IS EXISTING, SUBSISTENT, BODILY, LIVING, SENTIENT, AND
RATIONAL.

• 2. EXTENSION (OR DENOTATION) IS THE SUM TOTAL OF REAL THINGS

OR INDIVIDUALS TO WHICH THE CONCEPT APPLIES (REYES, 1988).
• EXAMPLE: THE IDEA RATIONAL ANIMAL IS
APPLICABLE TO EVERY INDIVIDUAL MAN.