AMT 129

Forms of Corrosion
Forms of corrosion
• There are many forms of corrosion. The form of corrosion depends on
the metal involved, its size and shape, its specific function,
atmospheric conditions, and the corrosion producing agents present.
Those described in this section are the more common forms found on
airframe structures.
Surface Corrosion
• General surface corrosion (also referred to as uniform etch or
uniform attack corrosion) is the most common form of
corrosion.

• Surface corrosion appears as a general roughening, etching,

or pitting of the surface of a metal, frequently accompanied
by a powdery deposit of corrosion products.
Surface Corrosion
• Surface corrosion may be caused by either direct chemical or
electrochemical attack.

• Sometimes corrosion spreads under the surface coating and

cannot be recognized by either the roughening of the surface
or the powdery deposit. Instead, closer inspection reveals
the paint or plating is lifted off the surface in small blisters
that result from the pressure of the underlying accumulation
of corrosion products.
Filiform Corrosion
• Filiform corrosion is a special form of oxygen concentration
cell that occurs on metal surfaces having an organic coating
system.

• It is recognized by its characteristic wormlike trace of

corrosion products beneath the paint film.

• Polyurethane finishes are especially susceptible to filiform

corrosion.
Filiform Corrosion
• Filiform occurs when the relative humidity of the air is between
78–90 percent, and the surface is slightly acidic. This corrosion
usually attacks steel and aluminum surfaces. The traces never
cross on steel, but they cross under one another on aluminum,
making the damage deeper and more severe for aluminum.

• If the corrosion is not removed, the area treated, and a

protective finish applied, the corrosion can lead to intergranular
corrosion, especially around fasteners and at seams.
Filiform Corrosion
• Filiform corrosion can be removed using glass bead blasting
material with portable abrasive blasting equipment or
sanding.
• Filiform corrosion can be prevented by storing aircraft in an
environment with a relative humidity below 70 percent,
using coating systems having a low rate of diffusion for
oxygen and water vapors, and by washing the aircraft to
remove acidic contaminants from the surface, such as those
created by pollutants in the air.
Pitting Corrosion
• Pitting corrosion is one of the most destructive and intense forms of
corrosion. It can occur in any metal but is most common on metals
that form protective oxide films, such as aluminum and magnesium
alloys.

• It is first noticeable as a white or gray powdery deposit, similar to

dust, which blotches the surface. When the deposit is cleaned away,
tiny holes or pits can be seen in the surface. These small surface
openings may penetrate deeply into structural members and cause
damage completely out of proportion to its surface appearance.
Dissimilar Metal Corrosion
• Extensive pitting damage may result from contact between
dissimilar metal parts in the presence of a conductor. While
surface corrosion may or may not be taking place, a galvanic
action, not unlike electroplating, occurs at the points or areas
of contact where the insulation between the surfaces has
broken down or been omitted.
• This electrochemical attack can be very serious because, in
many instances, the action is taking place out of sight, and the
only way to detect it prior to structural failure is by
disassembly and inspection.
Concentration Cell Corrosion
• Concentration cell corrosion, (also known as crevice
corrosion) is corrosion of metals in a metal-to-metal joint,
corrosion at the edge of a joint even though the joined
metals are identical, or corrosion of a spot on the metal
surface covered by a foreign material.

• three general type:

• Metal ion concentration cells,
• oxygen concentration cells
• active-passive cells
Concentration Cell Corrosion
Metal Ion Concentration Cells
• The solution may consist of water and ions of the metal that
are in contact with water.
• A high concentration of metal ions normally exists under
faying surfaces where the solution is stagnant and a low
concentration of metal ions exist adjacent to the crevice,
created by the faying surface.
 Concentration Cell Corrosion
Metal Ion Concentration Cells
• An electrical potential exists
between the two points: the
area of the metal in contact
with the low concentration of
metal ions is anodic and
corrodes; the area in contact
with the high metal ion
concentration is cathodic and
does not show signs of
corrosion.
Concentration Cell Corrosion
Oxygen Concentration Cells
• The solution in contact with the metal surface normally
contains dissolved oxygen.

• An oxygen cell can develop at any point where the oxygen in

the air is not allowed to diffuse into the solution, thereby
creating a difference in oxygen concentration between two
points.
Concentration Cell Corrosion
Oxygen Concentration Cells
• Typical locations of oxygen concentration cells are under
gaskets, wood, rubber, and other materials in contact with
the metal surface. Corrosion occurs at the area of low oxygen
concentration (anode). Alloys such as stainless steel are
particularly susceptible to this type of crevice corrosion.
Concentration Cell Corrosion
Active-Passive Cells
• Metals that depend on a tightly adhering passive film, usually
an oxide for corrosion protection, are prone to rapid
corrosive attack by active-passive cells. The corrosive action
usually starts as an oxygen concentration cell. The passive
film is broken beneath the dirt particle exposing the active
metal to corrosive attack. An electrical potential will develop
between the large area of the passive film and the small area
of the active metal, resulting in rapid pitting
 Concentration Cell Corrosion
Active-Passive Cells
• The passive film is broken
beneath the dirt particle
exposing the active metal to
corrosive attack. An electrical
potential will develop between
the large area of the passive
film and the small area of the
active metal, resulting in rapid
pitting
Intergranular Corrosion
• This type of corrosion is an attack along the grain boundaries
of an alloy and commonly results from a lack of uniformity in
the alloy structure. Aluminum alloys and some stainless
steels are particularly susceptible to this form of
electrochemical attack.
Intergranular Corrosion
• The lack of uniformity is caused by changes that occur in the
alloy during the heating and cooling process of the material’s
manufacturing.

• Intergranular corrosion may exist without visible surface

evidence. High-strength aluminum alloys, such as 2014 and
7075, are more susceptible to intergranular corrosion if they
have been improperly heat-treated and then exposed to a
corrosive environment.
Exfoliation Corrosion
• Exfoliation corrosion is an advanced form of intergranular
corrosion and shows itself by lifting up the surface grains of a
metal by the force of expanding corrosion products occurring
at the grain boundaries just below the surface.
Exfoliation Corrosion
• It is visible evidence of intergranular corrosion and is most
often seen on extruded sections where grain thickness is
usually less than in rolled forms. This type of corrosion is
difficult to detect in its initial stage. Extruded components,
such as spars, can be subject to this type of corrosion.

• Ultrasonic and eddy current inspection methods are being

used with a great deal of success.
Stress-Corrosion/Cracking
• This form of corrosion involves a constant or cyclic stress
acting in conjunction with a damaging chemical
environment. The stress may be caused by internal or
external loading.
Stress-Corrosion/Cracking
• Internal stress may be trapped in a part of structure during manufacturing
processes, such as cold working or by unequal cooling from high temperatures.
Most manufacturers follow these processes with a stress relief operation. Even
so, sometimes stress remains trapped.

• The stress may be externally introduced in part structure by riveting, welding,

bolting, clamping, press fit, etc. If a slight mismatch occurs or a fastener is over-
torqued, internal stress is present. Internal stress is more important than design
stress, because stress corrosion is difficult to recognize before it has overcome
the design safety factor. The level of stress varies from point to point within the
metal. Stresses near the yield strength are generally necessary to promote
stress corrosion cracking. However, failures may occur at lower stresses.
Stress-Corrosion/Cracking
Specific environments have been identified that cause stress
corrosion cracking of certain alloys.

1. Salt solutions and sea water cause stress corrosion cracking

of high-strength, heat-treated steel and aluminum alloys.
2. Methyl alcohol-hydrochloric acid solutions cause stress
corrosion cracking of some titanium alloys.
3. Magnesium alloys may stress corrode in moist air.
Stress-Corrosion/Cracking
• Stress corrosion may be reduced by applying protective
coatings, stress relief heat treatments, using corrosion
inhibitors, or controlling the environment.

• Shot peening a metal surface increases resistance to stress

corrosion cracking by creating compressive stresses on the
surface which should be overcome by applied tensile stress
before the surface sees any tension load. Therefore, the
threshold stress level is increased.
Fretting Corrosion
• Fretting corrosion is a particularly damaging form of
corrosive attack that occurs when two mating surfaces,
normally at rest with respect to one another, are subject to
slight relative motion.
• It is characterized by pitting of the surfaces and the
generation of considerable quantities of finely divided debris.
Since the restricted movements of the two surfaces prevent
the debris from escaping very easily, an extremely localized
abrasion occurs.
Fretting Corrosion
• The presence of water vapor greatly increases this type of
deterioration. If the contact areas are small and sharp, deep
grooves resembling brinell markings or pressure indentations
may be worn in the rubbing surface. As a result, this type of
corrosion on bearing surfaces has also been called false
brinelling.
Fretting Corrosion
• The most common example of fretting corrosion is the
smoking rivet found on engine cowling and wing skins. This is
one corrosion reaction that is not driven by an electrolyte,
and in fact, moisture may inhibit the reaction. A smoking
rivet is identified by a black ring around the rivet.
Fatigue Corrosion
• Fatigue corrosion involves cyclic stress and a corrosive environment.
Metals may withstand cyclic stress for an infinite number of cycles so
long as the stress is below the endurance limit of the metal. Once the
limit has been exceeded, the metal eventually cracks and fails from
metal fatigue.
• However, when the part or structure undergoing cyclic stress is also
exposed to a corrosive environment, the stress level for failure may be
reduced many times. Thus, failure occurs at stress levels that can be
dangerously low depending on the number of cycles assigned to the
life-limited part.
Galvanic Corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals make electrical
contact in the presence of an electrolyte. [Figure 8-18] The rate which
corrosion occurs depends on the difference in the activities. The
greater the difference in activity, the faster corrosion occurs. The rate
of galvanic corrosion also depends on the size of the parts in contact.
If the surface area of the corroding metal is smaller than the surface
area of the less active metal, corrosion is rapid and severe. When the
corroding metal is larger than the less active metal, corrosion is slow
and superficial.