Polysachharides

Polysachharides
Classification and Structures

Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides (or simply glycans) consist of repeat
units of monosaccharides or their derivatives, held
together by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides are
linear as well as branched polymers. This is in contrast
to structure of proteins and nucleic acids which are
only linear polymers. The occurrence of branches in
polysaccharides is due to the fact that glycosidic
linkages can be formed at any one of the hydroxyl
groups of a monosaccharide.
Classification
Polysaccharides are of two types
1. Homopolysaccharides on hydrolysis yield only a
single type of monosaccharide. They are named based
on the nature of the monosaccharide. Thus, glucans are
polymers of glucose whereas fructosans are polymers
of fructose.
2. Heteropolysaccharides on hydrolysis yield a mixture
of a few monosaccharides or their derivatives.
Homopolysaccharides
1 Starch
Starch is the carbohydrate reserve of plants which is
the most important dietary source for higher animals,
including man. High content of starch is found in
cereals, roots, tubers, vegetables etc. Starch is a
homopolymer composed of D-glucose units held by D-
glycosidic bonds. It is known as glucosan or glucan
Starch consists of two polysaccharide components-
water soluble amylose (15-20%) and a water insoluble
amylopectin (80-85%). Chemically, amylose is a long
unbranched chain with 200–1,000 D-glucose units
held by D (1 o 4) glycosidic linkages. Amylopectin, on
the other hand, is a branched chain with D (1 o 6)
glycosidic bonds at the branching points and D (1 o 4)
linkages
2 Dextrins
Dextrins are the breakdown products of starch by the
enzyme amylase or dilute acids. Starch is sequentially
hydrolysed through different dextrins and, finally, to
maltose and glucose.
The various intermediates (identified by iodine
colouration) are soluble
starch (blue),
amylodextrin (violet),
erythrodextrin (red) and
achrodextrin (no colour).
3 Dextrans
Dextrans are polymers of glucose, produced by
microorganisms.
4 Inulin
Inulin is a polymer of fructose i.e., fructosan. It occurs
in dahlia bulbs, garlic, onion etc. It is a low molecular
weight polysaccharide easily soluble in water. Inulin is
not utilized by the body. It is used for assessing kidney
function through measurement of glomerular filtration
rate (GFR).
5 Glycogen
Glycogen is the carbohydrate reserve in animals, hence
often referred to as animal starch.
It is present in high concentration in liver, followed by
muscle, brain etc. Glycogen is also found in plants that
do not possess chlorophyll (e.g. yeast, fungi).
The structure of glycogen is similar to that of
amylopectin with more number of branches.
Glucose is the repeating unit in glycogen joined
together by α (1-4) glycosidic bonds, and
cont……..
Cellulose, though not digested, has great importance in
human nutrition. It is a major constituent of fiber, the
non-digestable carbohydrate.
The functions of dietary fiber include decreasing the
absorption of glucose and cholesterol from the
intestine, besides increasing the bulk of feces as it
makes stool softer.
Chitin
Chitin is composed of N-acetyl Dglucosamine units
held together by α(1-4) glycosidic bonds. It is a
structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of
some invertebrates
e.g. insects, crustaceans.
Cellulose
 Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most
abundant organic substance in plant kingdom. It is a
predominant constituent of plant cell wall. Cellulose is
totally absent in animal body. Cellulose is composed of β-
D-glucose units linked by β(1-4) glycosidic bonds.
Cellulose cannot be digested by mammals— including
man—due to lack of the enzyme that cleaves β-glycosidic
bonds (α amylase breaks α bonds only). Certain ruminants
and herbivorous animals contain microorganisms in the
gut which produce enzymes that can cleave –β glycosidic
bonds. Hydrolysis of cellulose yields a disaccharide
cellobiose, followed by β-D-glucose.
HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES
When the polysaccharides are composed of different

types of sugars or their derivatives, they are referred to
as heteroglycans.
1 MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES
Mucopolysaccharides are heteroglycans made up of
repeating units of sugar derivatives, namely amino
sugars and uronic acids(Uronic acids are sugars where
the CH2OH group has been oxidised to form a
carboxylic acid group) These are more commonly
known as glycosaminoglycans (GAG).
GAG,s
Hyaluronic acid
Chondroitin sulfates
Heparin
Dermatan sulfate
Keratan sulfate
AGAR AND PECTINS
 Pectin and agar are both gelatinous substances that have
a variety of applications, including applications in food.
Both come from vegetable sources; pectin is a soluble
fiber found in plants, while agar comes from various
species of algae.
 Agar, mostly found in sea weeds, is a polymer of galactose
sulfate and glucose. Since agar is not digested, it serves as
a dietary fiber. Agarose is useful in the laboratory as a
major component of microbial culture media. Pectins,
found in apples and citrus fruits, contain galactouronate
and rhamnose. Pectins, being non-digestible, are useful as
dietary fiber. They are also employed in the preparation of
jellies.
GLYCOPROTEINS
 Several proteins are covalently bound to carbohydrates which
are referred to as glycoproteins. The carbohydrate content of
glycoprotein varies from 1% to 90% by weight.
 Sometimes the term mucoprotein is used for glycoprotein with
carbohydrate concentration more than 4%. Glycoproteins are
very widely distributed in the cells and perform variety of
functions. These include their role as enzymes, hormones,
transport proteins, structural proteins and receptors.The
carbohydrates found in glycoproteins include mannose,
galactose, N-acetylglucosamine, N-acetylgalactosamine,
xylose, L-fucose and N-acetylneuraminic acid (NANA).
NANA is an important sialic acid.
Antifreeze glycoproteins :
The Antarctic fish live below –2°C, a temperature at
which the blood would freeze. It is now known that
these fish contain antifreeze glycoprotein which lower
the freezing point of water and interfere with the
crystal formation of ice. Antifreeze glycoproteins
consist of 50 repeating units of the tripeptide, alanine-
alanine-threonine. Each threonine residue is bound to
β-galactosyl (1-3) α N-acetylgalactosamine.
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Polysachharides

Classification and Structures

When the polysaccharides are composed of different

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