Carbohydrates and Lipids

Group 1 – DVM 2-3

I. CARBOHYDRATES

☻ Definition.

According to Sinnott (2013), carbohydrates are considered to be one of the most prominent organic
substances present in nature.

During photosynthesis, plant cells contain chlorophyll which are essential for trapping solar
energy. The energy from sunlight gives off carbohydrates by combining carbon dioxide and water
which will in turn produce oxygen molecules that are essential for animal life. (Demura and Ye,
2010)

The equational formation of carbohydrates is shown below:

solar energy + 6 CO2 + 6 H20 C6H2O + 6 O2

Therefore, carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that follows an empirical
formula Cm(H2O)n (where m and n can be equal to 3 or more, and m may be different from n)
(Blackstock, 1989). As its empirical formula suggests, carbohydrates are considered the “hydrates
of carbon” as the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen is close to 2:1 just like in H2O.

In plant-source feeds, carbohydrates make up 60% to 90% of dry matter (DM) and comprise a
large number of diets consumed by animals aside from carnivores. This means that for animals,
carbohydrates are their major dietary source.

Carbohydrates are present in the cell content in the form of sugar or starch, or could be associated
with the structure of the cell wall (e.g. glucose). As animals consume plant materials such as grains,
fodder, and grass, carbohydrates are made available to the animal cell through metabolic activities.
In conclusion, animal metabolism as a whole, produces energy in the opposite way that
photosynthesis does.

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE

 Keep in mind that carbohydrates are also organic compounds that are made up of purely
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
 Its general formula is Cm(H2O)n, where m and n can be equal to 3 or more, and m may be
different from n.
 Its general structure is usually a long chain or ring of carbon atoms along with multiple
hydrogen atoms or hydroxyl groups (-OH).

CLASSES OF CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are classified according to the number of carbon atoms attached per molecule of a
carbohydrate and the number of sugar molecules in the compound.
Classification Based on the Number of Molecules of Sugar in the Compound

“saccharide” = sugar

a. Monosaccharide

carbohydrate with one saccharide

b. Disaccharide

carbohydrate with two saccharides

c. Oligosaccharide

• carbohydrates with few (3-10) saccharides

d. Polysaccharide

• carbohydrates with more than 10 saccharides

Monosaccharide

• also known as simple sugars, and cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler compounds
• has a formula of (CH2O)n (where n= 3 to 15 carbon atoms)
• simplest form among carbohydrates
• position of carbonyl group (C=O) is used to
categorize sugars into:
1. Aldose
if the sugar contains aldehyde group,
carbonyl C is found to be the last one in the
chain
2. Ketose when carbonyl C is “internal” to the
chain, wherein other carbon atoms is attached to
both of its sides, it forms a ketone group
• can be divided based on the number of carbon atoms:

o triose (3 C), tetrose (4 C), pentose (5 C), hexose (6 C)

monosaccharides are usually composed of 5 C and 6 C sugars.
• among these examples, sugars present in animal tissues are commonly pentoses, in the
form of ribose in RNA, and hexoses, in the form of blood sugars.
• there are three hexoses that are considered important in nutrition and metabolism:
a. Glucose- found in blood/ blood sugar; and is also the primary carbohydrate for
energy production
b. Fructose- the “fruit sugar”, forms when disaccharide sucrose is digester
c. Galactose- usually combined with other sugars like lactose or the “milk sugar”
in mammalian milk
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Oligosaccharide

• carbohydrates containing bonds between 3 to 15 monosaccharides

• among animal diets, these are usually found in beans and legumes
• some oligosaccharides serve as substances used for the enhancement of prebiotics or good
microbes
• recently used as feed component to promote hindgut health (examples are
fructooligosaccharides, and mannanoligosaccharides)

Polysaccharide

• “poly” means many

• found to be the most essential carbohydrate among animal feed
• made up of numerous monosaccharide units connected in a long to complex chains
• one of its functions is for energy storage in plant cells and animal cells
• functions as structural support for plant fibers too
• in animal nutrition, constituents of cell wall structures are considered non-starch
polysaccharides or resistant starch because these are fermented by hindgut and rumen
microbes rather than being digested by animal enzymes
• amylose is the simplest polysaccharide
• can be categorized into: Homopolysaccharide which is made up of only one type of
saccharide unit
a. Homopolysaccharides essential in animal nutrition are starch, glycogen, and
cellulose
▪ in animal diets, starch obtained from plants is their major energy source
▪ glycogen is a storage form of carbohydrates found in muscles and liver
b. Heteropolysaccharide is an element of plant cell walls with a combination of 5 C
and 6 C sugars like pectin and hemicellulose

SOURCES OF CARBOHYDRATES FOR ANIMALS

• Carbohydrates are expected to make up at least 75% of an animal’s diet. Carbohydrates

obtained from an animal’s diet are used for muscular movements.
• This also produces body heat among animals to keep them warm.
• However, carbohydrates are not stored in the body- unused carbohydrates are rather
converted into fats to be stored.

1. Simple Carbohydrates
o easily digested
o common examples are sugars and starch
o found in corn, wheat, oats, barley, and sorghum
2. Complex Carbohydrates
o needs more complex digestion

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 o examples are cellulose which is present in roughages such as hay, and pasture plants,
whole grains, and beans

LIGNIN

▪ Considering the role of lignin in animal nutrition, animal nutritionists consider lignin as an
unwanted or “antinutritive” component. Animals, especially ruminants are very
dependent on plants for consumption of their diet.
▪ Lignin, in particular, is one of the undegradable fiber which is part of the cell wall material
along with cellulose (40%) and hemicellulose (23%) on the basis of dry matter. (Coughlan
& Hazlewood, 1993)
▪ As part of the cell wall, lignin serves as a limiting factor in the diet of ruminant herbivores
compared to monogastric animals who can digest materials like these with ease.
▪ Ruminant herbivores, through their anaerobic rumen microbial population, ferment
cellulose and hemicelluloses which are polysaccharide polymers into a short chain of fatty
acids that is used as an energy source for the animal. Microbes on the other hand provide
protein. However, lignin is only partially fermented or degraded by rumen anaerobic fungi
(Krause, Denman, Mackie, et al., 2003)
▪ Lastly, lignin reduces food intake as it forms a physical barrier which prohibits the passage
of rumen microbes to fermentable cell wall components. In this way, the passage rate of
feeds through the rumen decelerates resulting in lower feed intake capacity. (Herrero, do
Valle, Hughes, Sabatel, & Jessop, 2001; Cannas, Van Soest, & Pell, 2003)

Link of the Source for this Section:

https://www.harrisonvilleschools.org/cms/lib/MO01909919/Centricity/Domain/215/Understanding%20Nutrients%2
0and%20their%20Importanc e%20Handout%201.pdf

DIGESTION

Digestion of Carbohydrates for Monogastric Animals:

▪ In farm animals, carbohydrate digestion usually occurs in the lumen of the small intestine
where pancreatic amylase is secreted which begins the process of amylose and amylopectin
digestion.
▪ Some birds do have some salivary amylase secretion in their mouth, but not in the case of
farm animals.
▪ Simple sugars like glucose and fructose do not necessarily undergo digestion as they are
directly absorbed in the intestinal epithelium.

Carbohydrate-Digesting Enzymes in Monogastric Animals:

▪ amylase, disaccharidase, maltase, sucrase, and lactase

▪ Glucose is the main end product of carbohydrate digestion for monogastric animals.

Digestion of Carbohydrates for Ruminants:

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 ▪ digestion of carbohydrates for ruminants takes place in the rumen through microbial
fermentation
▪ rumen microbes such as bacteria, fungi, and protozoa aid in degradation of carbohydrates
in the rumen
▪ fermentation of carbohydrates in the rumen is necessary for the production of energy in the
form of ATP which will later on be used by the bacteria for protein synthesis

Major Volatile Fatty Acids Produced in the Rumen

▪ volatile fatty acids (VFAs) are by-products of rumen fermentation that will be later on
absorbed through the wall of rumen converted as an animal's energy source.
▪ major VFAs produced in the rumen include: acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid.

Digestion of carbohydrates in ruminants include volatile fatty acids and monosaccharides.

II. LIPIDS
DEFINITION
▪ This topic introduces and discusses the importance of lipids (fats) in the nutrition of food
producing animals. Lipids are the second most important source of energy in animal diets
after carbohydrates.
▪ The word lipid is derived from a Greek word “lipos” which means fat.

Lipids: a heterogeneous class of naturally occurring organic compounds classified together on

the basis of common solubility properties
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 ▪ insoluble in water, but soluble in aprotic organic solvents including diethyl ether,
chloroform, methylene chloride, and acetone
▪ Amphipathic in nature
▪ Lipids are nonpolar (hydrophobic) compounds, soluble in organic solvents.
▪ Most membrane lipids are amphipathic, having a non-polar end and a polar end.
▪ The most common monomer of lipids is triglycerides.
▪ When you think of fats, you should know that they are lipids. Lipids are also used to
make steroids and waxes

In Animals, Lipids
▪ are the major form of energy storage.
▪ Mainly as fat which could Obese animals' adipose tissue can make up to 97% of the total.
▪ Stored fat is anhydrous
▪ 6 times effective as glycogen as stored energy
▪ The energy production from complete oxidation of fat is around 39 MJ/kg DM, compared
to roughly 35 MJ/kg DM for total oxidation of carbohydrates.
▪ While Glycogen, the most common carbohydrate source of stored energy, provides 17
MJ/kg DM
▪ Animal tissue structural lipids, primarily phosphoglycerides makes up 0.5 -- 1% of muscle
and adipose tissue, liver concentrations are generally low.
▪ The non-glyceride (neutral lipid) component in animal tissue is 2–3 percent. It’s made up
of cholesterol and its esters, which account for 0.06 -- 0.09% of the total. A combination of
muscle and adipose tissue
▪ Simple lipids, such as triglycerides, are more prevalent and play a vital role in animal
nutrition (example vegetable oil and animal fats such as tallow or lard).

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
 Lipids are consist of repeating units of fatty acids.
 fatty acid has the general formula of CH3(CH2)nCOOH where n ranges from 2-28 and
is always an even number.

 SOURCES OF LIPIDS FOR ANIMALS

 Ruminants lipid content is only under 5% and it usually comes from different sources
such as cereal grains or oil seeds, grass and leaves.
 For monogastric animals, it can be from meat, supplements like fish oil and vegetable
oil

Lipids are essential in the diet for two reasons.

1. The first is as a source of energy. Lipids are the most energy rich foodstuff when digested
by mammals. One gram of fat contains 2.5 times the amount of energy as one gram of
carbohydrate or protein.

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 2. Lipids are a source of vital fatty acids, which is the second reason. Fatty acids are required
for a wide range of structures and functions. Lipids, for example, are a necessary
component of plasma membranes and hormones, and they also serve as carriers for fat
soluble vitamins.

CHEMICAL CLASSES
FATS
▪ Fats and oils are significant resources of both plants and animals, and important sources of
stored energy. As well it is a major function of supplying energy.
▪ Stored fat has its primary role as a thermal insulator and a source of heat for several
warmblooded animals preserving one’s core body temperature.
▪ Fat carries fat soluble vitamins like A D E and K
▪ Fats are required for brain structure and also improves the taste, aroma, texture of food and
also helps in digestion
▪ Substances made from fats also provide the covering for nerves and thereby allows nerves
to carry the impulses necessary to function

Structure of Fats

1- Palmitoyl 2-oleoyl 3-stearoyl glycerol ( Palmito- oleo stearin)

▪ According to the nature and position of the fatty Triacylglycerols differ in type to the nature
and position of fatty acids. Simple triacylglycerols have three residues of the same fatty
acid, as shown above. When more than one fatty acid is included in the structure, it is called
complex triacylglycerols. Following esterification, a mixed triacylglycerol is produced.

Why Add Fats to Animal Diets?

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 ▪ Fats are an important source of energy for animals and are required for their existence.
Animals' only supply of essential fatty acids (those that the body cannot produce) is fat.
Fats can also be a good source of fat-soluble vitamins. However, because cattle diets are
fortified with vitamins, its role is quite little.
Fatty Acids
Long chain linear hydrocarbons carboxylic acids
Usually have an even number of C atoms
▪ The Carbons are numbered starting from the carboxylic C.
▪ They are amphiphilic, they have a polar end and the rest of the molecules are nonpolar.
▪ Fatty Acids may be saturated ( no double bonds) or unsaturated( one or more double bonds)
▪ Fatty acids are the most important components of lipid nutrition. This is attributable to their
structural, composition, and stabilizability.
▪ A fatty acid's molecular structure comprises a hydrophilic carboxyl group (COOH) and a
hydrophobic carboxyl group (COOH).
At the opposing ends of a hydrocarbon backbone, a hydrophobic methyl group (CH3)

3 fatty acids are attached to the glycerol molecule and are called triacylglycerol.
A triacylglycerol structure with three fatty acids on a glycerol backbone is depicted conceptually
below.

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Fatty acid composition determines the physical property and nutritional quality of fats. For
example, when there is a predominance of saturated fats in the triacylglycerol, fat tends to solidify
(e.g., fat around a piece of meat), and when there is a predominance of unsaturated fats, fat tends
to liquefy (e.g., salad oil)

Physical Properties: Fatty Acids

▪ Fats become more solid as saturation rises.
▪ Unsaturated fats become more liquid or have a lower melting point as the
percentage of unsaturated fats increases.
Acids o Saturated = no double bonds
o Unsaturated = presence of double bonds (could be one or two) o Polyunsaturated = more than
two double bonds

1. Saturated fatty acids are made up of straight chains with no double bonds that are
"saturated" with hydrogen.

2. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain
between adjacent carbon atoms.

3. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are fatty acids with two or more double bonds.
For these additional costs, o When opposed to the straight chain structure of saturated fat,
PUFAs tend to be more "round."

Two Types of PUFA

1. Omega-6 (n-6, or ω-6) fatty acid
2. Omega-3 (n-3, or ω-3) fatty acid

▪ The word omega (ω) or "n" is used by nutritionists to describe the location of double
bonds in a PUFAs carbon chain.

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 ▪ From the methyl end (CH3) of the carbon chain, the omega carbon is the first carbon
bearing a double bond.
▪ Omega-6 (also known as n-6 or -6) and omega-3 (also known as n-3 or -3) are two PUFA
categories. Omega-3 fatty acids, for example.
▪ When counting from the methyl (CH3) end, the first double bond will be at the third carbon,
while omega-6 will have the first double bond at the third carbon
▪ When counting from the methyl (CH3) end, the first double bond will be at the sixth carbon.
▪ In chemistry and biology, the Greek letter "delta" is used to represent the sites of double
bonds.
Essential Fatty Acids
▪ In non-ruminant, or monogastric, animals such as pigs, two fatty acids (α-linolenic acid,
C18:3 n-3) and linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6) have supplied in diet called essential fatty acids
▪ Double bonds at the third and sixth carbon from CH3 end in n-3 and n-6 locations.
Carnivores, such as cats, require arachidonic acid (C20:4 n-6) in addition to these two
necessary fatty acids.
▪ In nutrition, the term “essential” means animals cannot synthesize it to meet their
requirements.
▪ Essential fatty acids include the following:
1. Linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6)
2. Linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3)
3. Arachidonic acid (C20:4 n-6; in true carnivores, e.g., cats)

CHOLESTEROL
• Cholesterol is the most well-known steroid (a fat-soluble molecule with a steroid nucleus)
and is the precursor of a wide range of other steroid compounds. Vitamin D, bile acids, sex
hormones, and corticosteroid hormones are all examples of compounds that may be found
in the body.
• Cholesterol is a zoosterol that is present in all animal cells
• Low solubility in Water 0.2 mg and 100 ml
- Constituents of biological membranes
• Precursor of steroid hormones and bile acids
• Normal conc. In blood plasma 12000-2200 mg/l
• 30 % is in free state, 50 % of cholesterol in the body
• About 70% bound to protein by non covalent bond in lipoproteins

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HAVE FIVE CLASSES

1. HDLP( 1.063-1.210g/ml)
2. LDLP
3. IDLP
4. VLDLP( 0.95-1.006) 5. Chylomicrons

a. Collects cholesterol from the body tissues and brings it back to the liver. It referred “
GOOD
CHOLESTEROL” LIPOPROTEIN
b. Carry Cholesterol from liver to cells body. It referred to as “Bad Cholesterol c. IDLP
d. Carry new synthesis triacylglycerol the liver to adipose tissue
e. Carry Triacylglycerol fat from liver, skeletal muscle and adipose tissue.

Lipoprotein
• Greater surface to volume ratio
• Smaller particles have a high protein to lipids and more dense
• HDLP have 45% protein: VLDLP fraction 10% protein
• Heart disease a Plasma conc LDL-cholesterol
• And inversely to HDL-cholesterol, SFA:PUFA (0.5-0.9) ratio)

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 •PUFA decrease cholesterol level (ratio of 0.5-09 SFA:PUFA
OMEGA 6: Decease serum cholesterol and minor effect on triacylglycerol level
OMEGA 3: Decrease serum triacylglycerol level and minor effect in cholesterol
: Precursors of 1 series of PG (inhibit platelet aggregation) and 3 series of thromboxane
: Inhibit transformation of omega 6 acid to their products

Bile Acids

• 5 carbon side chain(C17) terminate in carboxyl group bound by an amide linkage in

glycine/taurine
• Synthesized from cholesterol

GLYCOLIPIDS
• Two of the glycerol's alcohol groups are esterified by fatty acids in these molecules.
• One is connected to a sugar residue, while the other is associated with acids. Lipids found
in grasses and clovers which make up the majority of ruminant dietary fat, are mostly
(approximately galactolipids (60%)
• Here the sugar in this case is galactose

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Galactolipids
• Glycolipids are found mostly in the brain and nerve fibers of animals. In animal tissues, the
nitrogenous base sphingosine replaces the glycerol of plant glycolipids as the basic unit

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Phospholipids play a major function in biological membranes as components of lipoprotein
complexes. They are widely dispersed, with a specific focus on The heart, kidneys, and
neurological tissues all have a lot of it. For example, myelin of nerve axons.
• Phospholipids account for just about 2% of total dietary lipids. They're soluble in water and
can be found in both plants and animals.
• Phospholipids are essential for forming the protective membrane that surrounds your body's
cells. In fact, the body produces phospholipids to create cell and organelle membranes.
Phospholipids form structures in blood and body fluids that allow fat to be encapsulated
and delivered throughout the bloodstream.
• Phospholipids, for example, account for up to 55% of the total phospholipid content. One
of the greatest animal products is eggs. Soya beans are a good source of protein, and they
contain a lot of it.
• In addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, phospholipids include phosphorus.

WAXES
• Waxes are non-polar lipids that are made up of a long-chain fatty acid mixed with a high
molecular weight monohydric alcohol
• Normally, they are normal temperatures, it is solid. The fatty acids contained in waxes are
the same as those found in food. although acids lower than lauric acid( dodecanoic:C12).
• Such as Carnaubic (C23H47.COOH) and mellissic (C30H61.COOH) has a higher acids
that may be present
• Carnaubyl (C24H49.OH) and cetyl (C24H49.OH) are the most frequent alcohols found in
waxes.
• Natural waxes are typically made up of a variety of esters. Beeswax is well-known for its
antimicrobial properties.
• The waxes are also resistant to breakdown and are poorly used by animals. CUTIN and
SUBERIN are very resistant to breakdown and have little nutritional value. The presence
of significant levels of ether extract in meals results in high ether extract figures, which
may reduce nutritive value.\

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 STEROIDS
• Sterols, bile acids, adrenal hormones, and sex hormones are among the physiologically
essential chemicals found in steroids. They share a phenanthrene nucleus coupled to a
cyclopentane ring as a structural unit. The amount and placements of double bonds, as well
as the type of the side chain at carbon atom 17, varied amongst the compounds.
Sterols
• These have a side chain with 8 to 10 carbon atoms and an alcohol group at carbon C3
• They have three atoms but no carbonyl or carboxyl groups. They may be divided into two
types.
- the phytosterols of plant origin
- the mycosterols of fungal origin
- the zoosterols of animal origin

• phenanthrene nucleus linked to a cyclopentane ring

• Phytosterols and mycosterols are not absorbed via the digestive system and are not present
in animal tissues.

TERPENES
• Terpenes are chains or cyclic structures made up of a number of isoprene units connected
together. Isoprene is a five-carbon chemical with the structure shown below

• Many of the terpenes contained in plants have distinct odors and flavors are constituents of
essential oils like lemon and camphor.
• The term 'essential' comes to mind. is used to show the presence of oils in essences rather
than to imply that they are present.

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 • Animals require them. The phytyl moiety of chlorophyll, carotenoid pigments, plant
hormones including gibberellic acid, and vitamins A, E, and K are all examples of essential
plant terpenes. Some coenzymes in animals, including those in the coenzyme Q group, are
terpenes.

DIGESTION

✓ The small intestine is where lipids are digested and absorbed.

✓ Bile starts the digestion of fats in the small intestine. The liver produces bile, which is held
in the gall bladder before being discharged into the small intestine. The lipid is emulsified
by the bile salts.
✓ Emulsification increases the lipid's accessible surface area, making it easier for enzymes to
digest it. The triacylglycerol molecule is hydrolyzed by pancreatic and intestine lipases,
producing primary free fatty acids and monoglycerides.

Digestion of Lipids for Ruminant Animals

▪ The lipid content of ruminant animals' diets is modest (less than 5%) and originates from a
variety of sources, including grass, leaves, oil seeds, and cereal grains. Galactolipids,
phospholipids, waxes, pigments, and essential oils are mostly found in leaf or grass lipids,
while triglycerides are mostly found in oil seed or grain lipids.
▪ Microbial lipases, on the other hand, are produced by rumen bacteria. The ester linkages in
triglycerides, phospholipids, and glycolipids are degraded first when dietary lipids enter the
rumen. Microbial lipases hydrolyze dietary lipids, releasing glycerol and fatty acids from
the lipid backbone (free fatty acids). Rumen bacteria easily convert glycerol to propionic
acid. Propionic acid levels in the diet are increased by consuming more fat.
▪ The second main alteration that dietary lipids might go through in the rumen is
biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids. Microbes change double-bond fatty acids to
produce more stable fatty acids. Linoleic acid and other fatty acids are transformed to
"conjugated" fatty acids.

Lipids Digestion in Monogastric

▪ Monogastric animal meat, primarily pigs and fowl, is by far the most popular of all meats.
Every species' meat has its own distinct properties. Pig meat has been marketed as a fatty
meat for a long time due to the importance of subcutaneous adipose tissue. When the
apparent fat is removed, this meat is really rather low in lipids: parts eaten raw and without
processing, such as roasts, have less than 2% total lipids. Poultry meat has traditionally had
a reputation for being lean due to its low intramuscular lipid content.

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▪ Therefore, monogastric animals produce lean meat when the visible fat is separated, lean meat is
produced. Thus, improving the information accessible to nutritionists and physicians is vital for a
better valorization of the nutritional properties of these meats, andit is especially important not to
confuse global adiposity of the carcass with true content inlipids of tissues, notably in the pig.

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 ANIMAL
NUTRITIONTopic 2:
PROTEINS

Introduction:
Proteins are the most versatile biomolecules that carry out an enormous range of functions.These are
found in living cells and are important in all phases of activity that constitute the life of each cell.

A Dutch Chemist named G.J. Mulder coined the term protein. This came from the Greek word proteios
which means first or most important. Proteins are complex organic compounds that are made of small
molecules that are combined together by a certain bond and are of high molecular weight.

Functions of Proteins:
1. They are the major structural constituents of various tissues (cartilage, feathers, hair,ligaments, nails,
skin, tendons, etc.).
2. They are also involved in biochemical, immunological, transportational, and other regulatory
activities.
3. There are proteins found in the blood that act as important carrier substances.
✓ Hemoglobin to carry oxygen between the lungs and the cells.
✓ Lipoproteins which help transport fats throughout the body and transferring which carriesiron
through the blood.
4. Proteins can also provide energy when needed.

Many of the structures in animal tissue and metabolic reactions are catalyzed by proteins. Therefore,
protein synthesis is vital for maintaining life process. Provision of sufficient dietary protein and amino acids
are essential for maintaining growth, health, and productivity in food- producing animals.
(McDonald, et al., 2010) and (Wortinger & Burns, 2015)

Chemical Structure:
Due to different conformation of the chains of amino acids, the structure of proteins divides into

Primary structure

The covalent bonds of the proteins

Secondary structure

The linear peptide chains fold either into an alpha-helical

structure(coiled) or a beta-pleated structure(sheets) which
contain hydrogen bonds.

Tertiary structure

The arrangement and interconnection of proteins into specific loops andbends forms
the tertiary structures. This structure contains
hydrogen, ionic and disulfide bonds.

Quaternary structure Page | 17

this structure of proteins containing more than one peptide chain.(Toppr, n.d.)
 Sources of Protein:
Protein is located throughout the body (bones, hair, muscle, skin, and nearly every other organ or tissue in the
body). It is also the building block of enzymes, which operate several chemical reactions.

Animal-based foods (meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy foods) incline to be good sources of complete protein,
while plant-based foods (fruits, grains, nuts, seeds, and vegetables) are frequently deficient in one or more
necessary amino acids.

When pet diets are made, multiple protein sources are frequently blended to increase the overall quality and
amino acid composition. Food can be designed with a higher-quality protein profile to avoid deficits and
inadequacies (Wortinger & Burns, 2015).

Eco-friendly Alternative Protein Sources for

Animal Feed
The world’s huge proportion of soybeans is often part of animal feeds.
Specifically, it is given to animals raised for human consumption and is the most widespread protein source
for all fuse feeds for dairy cattle, pigs, and poultry. Unfortunately, farming ofsoybeans is not necessarily
environmentally favorable or healthy for soybean meals.

1. Insects
Insects are among the most efficient sources of protein in terms of output per area of land, as they can
contain up to 82 percent protein and have a wide range of amino acids.
2. Earthworms
The red earthworm in particular is paving its way into the aquaculture feed market. Because of its high-
quality protein levels, necessary amino acids, and lipids that are similar to those found in fishmeal.
3. Seaweed
Asparagopsis taxiformis and Asparagopsis armata, two types of a crimson submarine grass,have the
ability to neutralize methane emissions generated by livestock production.
4. Pea protein
Peas are becoming a more feasible option to soy meal when it comes to providing high levelsof
protein.
5. Single-cell protein
Single-cell proteins (SCP) or microbial proteins are edible unicellular microorganisms thatthrive on
a variety of carbon sources, such as yeast, bacteria, fungus, and algae.
(Harris, 2021)

Amino Acids:
- These are different building blocks (basic units) of protein
- 20 amino acids are considered nutritionally important, while ten are deemed necessary.
Functions:
✓ Amino acids are required for bodily cell and tissue production, enzymes,
hormones, and so forth.
✓ They can be utilized as a source of energy.

Essential Amino Acids:

Transamination process involves specific amino acids that can be produced from others while the carbon
skeletons of some amino acids cannot be synthesized in the animal body; these are referred to as Essential or
Indispensable amino acids.
• Phenylalanine • Histidine
•Valine • Isoleucine
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• Threonine • Leucine
• Methionine • Lysine
• Arginine • Taurine (cats only)
• Tryptophan
 Peptides:
- A peptide is a short chain of amino acids.
- Peptide bonds are the bonds that connect the amino acids in a peptide's sequence.
- The shorter length of peptides distinguishes them from proteins, although the number of aminoacids
used to define a peptide and a protein can be arbitrary.
- Peptides are built up from amino acids by means of a linkage between the α-carboxyl of oneamino
acid and the α-amino group of another acid.
This type of linkage is known as the peptide
linkage; in the example shown, a
dipeptide has been produced from two amino
acids. Large numbers of amino acidscan be
joined together by this means, with the
elimination of one molecule of water
at each linkage, to produce polypeptides.

Properties of Amino Acids:

1. Amino acids are amphoteric. They have both basic and acidic properties due to the presenceof an
amino group and a carboxyl group.

2. Amino acids in aqueous solution exist as dipolar ions or zwitter ions. In a strongly acid solution,an
amino acid exists largely as a cation, while in alkaline solution it occurs mainly as an anion.

3. Amino acid acts as buffers, resisting changes in pH. It is due to their amphoteric nature. Thereis a pH
value for a given amino acid at which it is electrically neutral; this value is known as theisoelectric point.

4. All the α-amino acids except glycine are optically active.

5. As with the carbohydrates, amino acids can take two mirror image forms, D- and L-.

6. All the amino acids involved in protein structure have an L-configuration of the carbon atom. If
supplied in the D-form, some amino acids can be converted to the L-form by deamination of the amino
acid to the keto acid and reamination to the L-form.
(McDonald, et al., 2010)

Classes of Proteins:
Based on the chemical nature, shape, solubility, and structure, proteins are classified as:
1. Simple proteins: They are composed of only amino acid residue. On hydrolysis, theseproteins
yield only constituent amino acids. It is further divided into:
✓ Fibrous protein: Keratin, Elastin, Collagen
✓ Globular protein: Albumin, Globulin, Glutelin, Histones
2. Conjugated proteins: They are combined with non-protein moiety.
Examples: Nucleoprotein, Phosphoprotein, Lipoprotein, Metalloprotein, etc.
3. Derived proteins: They are derivatives or degraded products of simple and conjugatedproteins.
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They may be:
• Primary derived protein: Coagulated proteins, Metaproteins, and Proteans
• Secondary derived proteins: Peptones, Peptides, and Proteoses or Albumoses
 (Aryal, 2021)

Other Nitrogenous
Compounds:
Plants and mammals both have nucleic acids. Nitrogenous lipids, amines, amides, purines,
pyrimidines, nitrates, and alkaloids are among the other chemicals. Furthermore, most vitamin B
complex components have nitrogen in their structure.

✓ Amines - basic compounds present in small amounts in most plant and animal tissues. Many
occur as decomposition products in decaying organic matter and have toxic properties.

✓ Amides - Asparagine and glutamine are important amide derivatives of the amino acids:
aspartic acid and glutamic acid
“These two amides are classed as amino acids”
- Urea is an important member of the amide group of compounds.

✓ Nitrates - found in plant materials. It may not be dangerous to animals but it is still reduced
readily under favorable conditions, as in the rumen, to nitrite, which is toxic.

✓ Alkaloids - most of them have toxic properties. In plants, their presence is restricted to a few
orders of the dicotyledons. A quantity of them are listed in the table below.

✓ Alkaloid in ragwort attacks the liver, wherein it can be destroyed before symptoms appear.

[poisonous nitrogen-containing compounds formed by some plants and fungi.]

(McDonald,
2010)

PROTEINS
-enzymes are composed of protein
-protein can be used to supply energy
composed of the elements C, H and O with N as its basic elements
-May also contain sulfur, phosphorus and other minerals
-Proteins are composed of amino acids joined in a peptide linkage.
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-Quality and type of protein is determined by the number, type and sequence
 of amino acids
- Balancing rations is based on the amino acid content
-The order of the amino acids in a protein is called primary structure of the protein

VITAMINS

More often than not, vitamins are limitedly defined as an organic component needed for
an animal's growth and sustenance and maintenance of life. Vitamins may be prepared as food
supplements, but they also play an important role in actively participating in the metabolism of
all living organisms.

Vitamins and animal feeds must work hand-in-hand in ensuring that nutritional
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requirements in animals are met and satisfied, as most vitamins alone cannot be synthesized by
animals and feed alone is insufficient to guarantee the right vitamin status as well. Vitamins must
be obtained by means of feed and feed must be introduced to animals with the proper amount of
nutrients to keep the health of the animals going.

DISCOVERY OF VITAMINS

Vitamin discovery was a huge scientific breakthrough in our understanding of health and
illness. In the early twentieth century, Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins pioneered the discovery of
vitamins by conducting studies on rats fed a specific diet. Fats, proteins, carbs, and mineral salts
were all included in the diet he gave the rats in this experiment. Hopkins hypothesized that milk
included one or more "accessory growth factors" since the rats did not grow until milk was
introduced to their diet.

These accessory growth factors were first isolated and identified around 1912 and was
found to be chemically an amine and thus Casimir Funk, around this time, invented the name
'vitamines,' vitamine, from the Latin vita for “life” and amine, to characterize auxiliary food
elements that he believed included amino-nitrogen.

VITAMINS AND BIOCHEMISTRY

Vitamins are usually defined as organic compounds that are required in small amounts for
normal growth and maintenance of animal life. Vitamins are not merely building blocks or energy-
yielding com- pounds but are involved in, or are mediators of, the biochemical pathways. They
are a chemically diverse set of chemicals whose only thing in common is that they are dietary
necessities that are necessary in modest levels for normal body function and metabolic integrity.
They serve as coenzymes, hormones, antioxidants, cell signaling mediators,and regulators of cell
and tissue growth and differentiation, among other metabolic roles.

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 Vitamins are required by animals in very small amounts compared with other nutrients; for
example, the vitamin B1 (thiamin) requirement of a 50 kg pig is only about 3 mg/day.
Nevertheless, a continuous deficiency in the diet results in dis- ordered metabolism and eventually
disease.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

Vitamins aid in the repair of bones, the healing of wounds, and the strengthening of the immune
system. They also repair cellular damage and transform food into energy. Although water-soluble
vitamins serve a variety of functions in the body, one of the most significant is assisting in the
release of energy from meals while other vitamins participate in keeping tissues healthy.

● Release energy. Several B vitamins are key components of certain coenzymes(molecules that
aid enzymes) that help release energy from food.

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 ● Produce energy. Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, and biotin engage in energy
production.
● Build proteins and cells. Vitamins B6, B12, and folic acid metabolize amino acids (the building
blocks of proteins) and help cells multiply.
● Make collagen. One of many roles played by vitamin C is to help make collagen, which knits
together wounds, supports blood vessel walls, and forms a base for teeth and bones.

SOURCES OF VITAMINS FOR ANIMALS

VITAMIN A
Vitamin A is stored in the liver as oils from the livers of certain fishes, particularly cod
and halibut, which were once considered essential sources of the vitamin. Egg yolk and milk fat
are also good sources of vitamins, although the amount depends on the diet of the animal from
which it was derived. Vitamin A is a synthetic vitamin that can be manufactured in its purest form.

VITAMIN D

The availability of vitamin D in plants is only through sundried roughages and dead leaves
of growing plants and thus are limited. Vitamin D3 is found in trace amounts in several tissues and
is only abundant in a few fish species. Not only are halibut and cod liver oils high in vitamin A,
but they are also high in vitamin D3. Cow's milk is typically a poor source, whereas egg yolk is a
good source. A vitamin injection is widely used to treat the clinical signs of avitaminosis D and
other vitamin deficiencies in animals.

VITAMIN E

Vitamin E is extensively dispersed in foods, but it is not kept in great concentrations in the
animal body for any length of time, thus a consistent dietary intake is necessary. Tocopherol, a
vitamin E, is found in richer sources like in young green fodders as the leaves have 20 to 30 times
the vitamin E content of the stems. During haymaking, losses can reach 90%, whereas losses
during ensilage or artificial drying are minimal. Vitamin E is also found in cereal grains, although
the tocopherol content varies by species. Although the amount present is connected tothe level of
vitamin E in the diet, animal products are generally poor suppliers of the vitamin.
VITAMIN K
Phylloquinone is the major dietary form of vitamins K (K1). It is present in most green
leafy materials, with lucerne, cabbage and kale being good sources. The amounts present in foods
of animal origin are usually related to the diet, but egg yolk, liver and fishmeal are generally good
sources. Menaquinones (Vitamin K2) are synthesized by bacteria in the digestive tract of animals.

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 VITAMIN B1
Thiamin, also known as vitamin B1, is widely distributed in foods. It is concentrated in the
outer layers of seeds, the germ, and in the growing areas of roots, leaves and shoots. Fermentation
products, such as brewer’s yeast, are rich sources. Animal products rich in thiamin include egg
yolk, liver, kidney and pork muscle. The synthetic vitamin is available, usually marketed as
hydrochloride.

VITAMIN B2

Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2, occurs in all biological materials. The vitamin can be
synthesized by all green plants, yeasts, fungi and most bacteria, although the lactobacilli are a
notable exception and require an exogenous source. Rich sources are yeast, liver, milk (especially
whey) and green leafy crops. Cereal grains are poor sources.

VITAMIN B3
Vitamin B3 is nicotinic acid, generally known as niacin. It can be made from tryptophan
in the bodily tissues, and because animals can convert the acid to the amide-containing coenzyme,
the dietary requirement for the vitamin should be low if the food is sufficiently rich in tryptophan-
rich proteins. However, the conversion of tryptophan to nicotinamide is inefficient. In studies with
chicks, the amino acid was transformed into the vitamin at a ratio of only 45:1 on a weight basis,
and the conversion ratio may be considerably higher with specific meals, such as soya bean meal.
As a result, it is often assumed that an external source of the vitamin is also required.

Cats possess enzymes capable for converting tryptophan to nicotinic acid, however, the
activity of a competing enzyme is quite high and thus no nicotinic acid is generated. Furthermore,
cats do not need to produce nicotinic acid because NAD and NADH are abundant in their natural
diet.
Rich sources of the vitamin are liver, yeast, groundnut, and sunflower meals. Although
cereal grains contain the vitamin, much of it is present in a bound form that is not readily available
to pigs and poultry. Milk and eggs are almost devoid of the vitamin, although they contain the
precursor tryptophan.

VITAMIN B5
Pantothenic acid, derived from the Greek work pantothen meaning ‘from everywhere’, is
found everywhere and is widely distributed. Rich sources are liver, egg yolk, groundnuts, peas,
yeast and molasses, as well as cereal grains and potatoes. Synthetically prepared calcium
pantothenate is the commonest product used commercially.

VITAMIN B6
Vitamin B6 is present in plants as pyridoxine, whereas animal products may also contain pyridoxal
and pyridoxamine. Pyridoxine and its derivatives are widely distributed: yeast, pulses, cereal
grains, liver and milk are rich sources.
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 VITAMIN B7

Biotin, commonly known as vitamin B7, is found in a variety of foods, including liver, milk,
yeast, oilseeds, and vegetables. However, with some foods, much of the bound vitamin may be
unavailable because it is not released during digestion. Biotin availability in barley and wheat is
quite low, according to studies with chicks and pigs, whereas biotin availability in maize and some
oilseed meals, such as soya bean meal, is 100%.

VITAMIN B9

Folic acid is abundant in nature as it can be found in green leafy vegetables, cereals,
and extracted oilseed meals. Folic acid is relatively stable in foods that are kept dry but is easily
destroyed by UV light and moisture at high temperatures.
Choline is a nutrient that functions similarly to the B vitamins and is present in meats,
fishes, nuts, beans, vegetables, and eggs are among the foods that contain it. Choline is involved
in a variety of chemical events in the human body and is possible to manufacture in theliver.

VITAMIN B12
Vitamin B12, particularly rich in the liver, is supposed to be entirely generated by bacteria,
and its presence in meals is thought to be microbial in origin. Animal-based foods, such as fish,
meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products, are the best natural sources of the vitamin. Its rare
appearance in higher plants is still a source of debate, with some speculating that its existence in
trace amounts could be due to contamination with bacteria or insect remnants.

VITAMIN C
Well-known sources of the ascorbic acid also known as the vitamin C are citrus fruits
and green leafy vegetable while synthetic ascorbic acid is readily available commercially

FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamins are classified as either lipid-soluble or water-soluble, and the difference between
the two impacts how the body transports, stores, and eliminates excess vitamins. The journey into
the blood for lipid-soluble vitamins, which are dissolved in fat and present in foods like dairy,
butter, and oils, is more complicated. These vitamins pass via the stomach and intestine, where
bile, an acidic substance produced by the liver, breaks down fat and prepares it for absorption
through the intestinal wall. Proteins bind to fat-soluble vitamins and act as messengers, carrying
fat-soluble vitamins into the blood and across the body because fat-soluble vitamins can't utilize
the blood's watery nature.
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Because the system can easily circulate water-soluble vitamins in the bloodstream, most 26
them can also be passed out through the kidneys. As a result, most water-soluble vitamins

Page | 27
must be supplied on a daily basis through our diet. Fat-soluble vitamins, on the other hand, have
a longer shelf life because they can be stored in the liver and fat cells. The body treats these sections
like a pantry, keeping vitamins there and rationing them out as needed, implying that we shouldn't
take too many of these vitamins because the body is normally adequately stocked.
Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble vitamins that are beneficial to your health which
are beneficial to growth, reproduction, and overall health. Vitamin A aids in the formation of
white blood cells, which are important for the body's defense, as well as the shaping of bones and
the improvement of vision by keeping eye cells in control. Vitamin D collects calcium and
phosphorus for bone formation, while vitamin E acts as an antioxidant, removing substances from
the body that can harm cells. Vitamin K scores the ability to clot blood, since it helps make the
proteins that do this job.

VITAMIN B COMPLEX

The vitamins included under the vitamin b complex are all soluble in water and most of them are
components of coenzymes.

Thiamin

Thiamin is also known as vitamin B1 is a water-soluble vitamin that’s commonly found in

many plants and animal derived foods. Animal products rich in thiamin include egg yolk, liver,
kidney and pork muscle. The synthetic vitamin is available, usually marketed as the hydrochloride

Deficiency symptoms

● Early signs of thiamin deficiency in most species include loss of appetite, emaciation,
muscular weakness and a progressive dysfunction of the nervous system.

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 ● Thiamin is fairly widely distributed in foods and, in particular, because cereal grains are rich
sources of the vitamin, pigs and poultry are in practice unlikely to suffer from thiamindeficiency

Riboflavin

Riboflavin, also known as Vitamin B2, plays a very important role in the metabolism of
animals. It is necessary for digestion, and helps convert fats, proteins, and carbohydrates into
energy. Vitamin B2 is a key part of tissue repair, particularly in the eyes, mouth, and nervous
system. Furthermore, it is critical for proper growth and embryo development.

Deficiency symptoms

● In sows, it is important to maintain normal estrus activity and prevent premature parturition.
● The vitamin is synthesized in the rumen and deficiencies in animals with functional rumens are
unlikely to occur. However, riboflavin deficiencies have been demonstrated in young calves and
lambs. Symptoms include loss of appetite, diarrhea and lesions in the corners of the mouth

Nicotinamide

The major function of niacin is in the coenzyme forms of nicotinamide, NAD and NADP.
Enzymes containing NAD and NADP are important links in a series of reactions associated with
carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolism. They are especially important in the metabolic
reactions that furnish energy to the animal.

Deficiency symptoms

● Deficiency symptoms are particularly likely in pigs and poultry if diets with a high maize content
are used, since maize contains very little of the vitamin or of tryptophan
● In pigs, deficiency symptoms include poor growth, anorexia, enteritis, vomiting and dermatitis

Vitamin B6

Also called pyridoxine, vitamin B6 occurs widely in foods like whole meal bread, bananas,
yeast extract, nuts, liver and pulses. Vitamin B6 plays a role in the metabolism of protein,
carbohydrates and fats, the production of neurotransmitters and the formation of nicotinic acid. It
is vital for maintaining a healthy nervous system, skin, muscles, and blood.

Deficiency symptoms

● Severe deficiency is rare, but marginal deficiency might be quite common. The need for this
vitamin increases during pregnancy and lactation due to the additional demands made by the fetus
or infant.

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 ● In animals, adult ruminants are self-sufficient in vitamin B6, but young animals require
supplements during the growth period.

Pantothenic acid

Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) is critical for animal health because it is involved in a vast
number of chemical reactions within the body. Besides turning fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
into energy, vitamin B5 interacts with other vitamins to perform necessary functions.

Deficiency symptoms

● Pantothenic acid deficiency is relatively uncommon in pets and livestock. It is most likelyin swine
and poultry and almost always signals an unbalanced diet. Vitamin B5 deficiency appears to be
more prevalent in swine fed swill that consists largely of bakery waste.

Folic acid

Folic acid was first discovered in the 1930s when it was found that a certain type of anemia in
human beings could be cured by treatment with yeast or liver extracts. Folic acid is necessaryfor
normal metabolic functions such as DNA synthesis and red blood cell production

Deficiency symptoms

● A variety of deficiency symptoms in chicks and young turkeys have been reported, including poor
growth, anemia, poor bone development and poor egg hatchability.
● Folic acid deficiency symptoms rarely occur in other farm animals because of synthesis by
intestinal bacteria.

Biotin

Biotin functions in the formation and metabolism of fats and carbohydrates. A relatively stable
substance, it is widely distributed in nature and is especially abundant in egg yolk, beef liver, and
yeast. Biotin was first identified as a nutritive requirement of yeast.

Deficiency symptoms

● Biotin deficiency can be induced by giving animals avidin, a protein present in the raw white of
eggs, which combines with the vitamin and prevents its absorption from the intestine.

Choline

Choline is a component of lecithins, which play a vital role in cellular structure and activity. It
also plays an important part in lipid metabolism in the liver, where it converts excess fat into
lecithin or increases the utilization of fatty acids, thereby preventing the accumulation of fat in
the liver.

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 Deficiency symptoms

● Deficiency symptoms, including slow growth and fatty infiltration of the liver, have been
produced in chicks and pigs

Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 has the most complex structure of all the vitamins Vitamin B12 is considered to
be synthesized exclusively by microorganisms and its presence in foods is thought to be ultimately
of microbial origin. The main natural sources of the vitamin are foods of animal origin, liver being
a particularly rich source.

Deficiency symptoms

● Adult animals are generally less affected by a vitamin B12 deficiency than are young
growing animals, in which growth is severely retarded and mortality high.

VITAMIN C

The chemical nature for Vitamin C is L-ascorbic acid. Vitamin C is

an acidic and powerful reducing molecule that is white, crystalline,
and water soluble. It's naturally found in some foods, added to others,
and available as a nutritional supplement. Vitamin C is an essential
dietary component because humans are unable to produceit. It is heat-
stable in acid solutions, but it decomposes quickly in the presence of
alkali. When exposed to light, the vitamin's removal is hastened.

SOURCES OF VIT C.

Food
Most of the best food sources of this are fruits and vegetables. However, the amount of
vitamin C in foods may lessen due to prolonged storage and cooking due to its sensitivity to
heat and its water solubility.

Dietary Supplements
These supplements take the form of ascorbic acid, which are comparable to that of naturally
occurring ascorbic acid in orange juice and broccoli. Other forms are sodium ascorbate, calcium
ascorbate, etc.

Vitamin C Deficiency
Lack of vitamin C, or acute vitamin deficiency, can lead to scurvy- characterized by
oedema, emaciation, and diarrhea- which can develop into anemia, debility, depression,
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exhaustion, and ulceration in the gums. Structural defects in bone, teeth, cartilage, connective tissues
and muscles are effects when failure in collage formation happens.

Health
Vitamin C has been promoted as a way to prevent and treat various health conditions.
Additionally, Vitamin C is low in toxicity and is believed to not cause serious effects when too
much is digested.

Metabolism
Vitamin C is an essentiality for maintaining normal collagen metabolism. In various
oxidation-reduction, ascorbic acid is an important player in living cells. Additionally, it helps
in the transportation of iron ions from transferrin- which can be found in the plasma- to ferritin-
which acts as storage for iron in the bone marrow, liver, and spleen. As an antioxidant, ascorbic
acids work hand-in-hand with vitamin E in defending cells against oxidative damage.

HYPERVITAMINOSIS

Hypervitaminosis is a pathological condition involving the excessive intake of bioactive

metabolites of vitamins, especially vitamins A and D. These vitamins are fat-soluble, thus having
a predilection to accumulate in the liver and fatty tissues of the body, which then could lead to
toxicosis. Toxicities of fat-soluble vitamins can occur in large intake of fortified foods. Generally,
an animal can reach a certain level of toxicity of a vitamin by means of high supplement intake,
however, animals and farm animals are unlikely to receive and get administered excessive doses
of vitamins. On another note, toxic symptoms can occur if animals are given excessive quantities
of vitamin A or D. Hypervitaminosis usually occur with the fat-soluble vitamins A and D and has
produced known type of conditions named hypervitaminosis A and hypervitaminosis
B. Other conditions also include vitamin B3 toxicity and megavitamin-B6 syndrome.

Hypervitaminosis A

Vitamin A is an essential fat-soluble vitamin that is vital to most physiological processes

for reproduction, vision, and to maintain the integrity of most membrane structures and the normal
functioning of cells. Excessive intake of this vitamin could lead to a toxic syndrome known as
Hypervitaminosis A.

The reports of toxicity performed by Vitamin A were first recognized in the 1920’s – with
most in laboratory animals. In humans, clinical cases of hypovitaminosis A were replaced largely
with hypervitaminosis A although no specific data have been reported as to why cases of
hypervitaminosis A outweighed the cases of hypovitaminosis B, but it was suggested that it has
been due to the misuse of readily available high-potency vitamin preparations. In domestic animals
in present-day practices, dairy cattle usually obtain their dose of Vitamin A in the form of carotene
and, therefore, the occurrence of Hypervitaminosis A is thinned out to limited. However, rations
with preformed vitamin A are stretching wide, and thus the possibility of hypervitaminosis A, both
acute and chronic, is increasing. Page | 32
Effects of Hypervitaminosis A

● Hypervitaminosis A occurs due to excess retinol which causes changes in the biological
membrane.

● Higher concentration of retinol increases the synthesis of lysosomal hydrolases which can
cause cell membrane destruction. However, toxicity of excess vitamin A intake appears
only when the amount of vitamin A present exceeds the capacity of the retinol binding
protein to bind to it, and this is due to the retinol notshowing surface active effect when
bound to the retinol binding protein. This occurrence of vitamin A not binding to RBP and
instead to the lipoproteins, shows toxicity effects when it encounters membrane and body
cells.

● Hypervitaminosis causes hepatocellular damage leading to fatal portal hypertension,

increased intracranial pressure, and gastrointestinal, cutaneous, and musculoskeletal
symptoms.

● In young chicks, clinical signs of hypervitaminosis A include loss of appetite, poorgrowth,

diarrhea, mouth encrustation and reddening of the eyelids. In pigs, toxic symptoms include
rough coat, scaly skin, hyperirritability, hemorrhages around the limbs and abdomen,
periodic tremors and even death.

Types of Hypervitaminosis A

Acute hypervitaminosis A
● Occurs during high intake of vitamin A over a short period of time.
● Symptoms of nausea, vomiting and increasing CSF pressure are evident toanimals
injected with a single dose of vitamin A greater than 100mg.

Chronic hypervitaminosis A

● More common than the acute variant due to the excessive intake of vitamin A bytenfold
the normal number of intakes required for hypervitaminosis to occur.
● Can result in alopecia, ataxia, bone and muscle pain and purities.
● Much more difficult to recognize early unless careful medical history was taken.

Hypervitaminosis D

Hypervitaminosis D toxicity refers to the effects of excessive metabolites of vitamin D.

Vitamin D is composed of different compounds, among them are vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol),
the most active form of vitamin D, and vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol). Cholecalciferol was found to
be approximately ten times more toxic than the ergocalciferol vitamin, and its toxicity was reported
to cause generalized calcification of soft tissues. Toxicity caused by both vitamins can occur to
young developing dogs from excessive dietary supplementation. Precautions are needed with
hypervitaminosis D as it shows a slow onset of action and prolonged durations, hence, correct
administration of dosage is performed with difficulty.

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Effects of Hypervitaminosis D

In present-day practices, Vitamin D3 or cholecalciferol is widely used as feed

supplement in commercial livestock, as well as in pet and infant feeds.

● The presence of excessive amounts of vitamin D3 in commercial feed supplements are

reported to have caused toxicity in pets, infants, and in swine.
● High concentration of vitamin D3 is also reported to have been found on plant species such
as the golden oat grass, which most livestock on pastures graze on, causing a disorder
called enzootic calcinosis or Manchester wasting disease.

Although physiologically, vitamin D helps in maintaining calcium levels in

blood by increasing their intestinal absorption of calcium, as well as stimulating bone
resorption

● However, reports have been found that high doses of vitamin D2 and D3 accelerate the
functions often leading to hypercalcemia as a result of the calciumsalts being deposited in
soft tissues such as kidneys, blood vessels, heart, and lungs, which in turn causing the soft
tissues to become calcified and the bone to thin or be ratified.
● Series of consequences brought about by the excessive intake of both vitamins D2 and D3
causes structural damage to the tissues and organs due to the result of mineralization, and
thus will lead to decreased functional capacity and eventually the loss of functionality of
these tissues and organs. The functional loss contributes to the development of clinical
signs and long-term signs which could then lead to the animal’s death.

MINERALS
Although most of the naturally occurring mineral elements are found in animal tissues,
many are thought to be present merely because they are constituents of the animal’s food and may
not have an essential function in the animal’s metabolism.
Until 1950, 13 mineral elements were classified as essential: these comprised the major
elements (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulphur, magnesium) and the micro
or trace elements (iron, iodine, copper, manganese, zinc and cobalt). By 1970, molybdenum,
selenium, chromium and fluorine had been added to the list; subsequently, arsenic, boron, lead,
lithium, nickel, silicon, tin, vanadium, rubidium and aluminium have also been included, the list
varying slightly according to the different authorities.
Minerals are those elements on the earth and in foods that our bodies need to develop and
function normally. These are held in different forms in the body, which can be considered as
compartments.There is a central reserve or interchange compartment, which is usually blood
plasma, and one or more compartments that interchange the mineral with the central compartment
at various rates. Furthermore, despite the fact that minerals have an essential role in animal
nutrition, it is crucial to know that many are toxic – causing illness or death – if given tothe animal
in excessive quantities.

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 FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS
In animals, minerals function as structural components of organs and tissues, as cofactors
or activators in enzyme and hormone systems, as constituents of body fluids and tissues (where
they maintain osmotic pressure, acid-base balance, membrane permeability, andtissue irritability),
and as regulators of cell.
Also, minerals are needed for the proper composition of body fluids, including blood, and
for the proper composition of tissues, bone, teeth, muscles and nerves. Minerals also play a
significant role in maintaining healthy nerve function, the regulation of muscle tone, and
supporting a healthy cardiovascular system.

SOURCES OF MINERALS FOR ANIMALS

Minerals are inorganic elements that are essential for an animal’s physiological function
and metabolic processes. These minerals help the animal’s body perform functions including the
expression and regulation of genes and enzyme systems. The number of minerals present in forages
that are being fed to the animals, should be made according to the mineral composition.

Animals get most of their minerals from plants or what they eat. Soil conditions and
mineral content affect the uptake of minerals by plants, and this can be further influenced by
fertiliser application. One of the major influences is soil pH, the effect of which differs among the
elements. For this reason, a proper balance of macro and microminerals that are essential for the
animal must be made.

Macrominerals are a group of mineral elements that are most needed in an animal’s diet
and it is also required for them in sufficient amounts. A good source of major minerals are the
main animal products used in animal feeding, fishmeal, whey and skimmed milk. Some examples
of macrominerals include:
● Calcium helps to form structures like bones and teeth of animals; it plays a great role in an
animal’s organs like the heart, intestine, and muscles.
● Phosphorus which is associated with calcium and also found in bone structures;involved in
many metabolic processes.
● Potassium is the most abundant cation and significantly functions in the animal’s body togenerate
energy.

However, macromineral deficiencies can happen causing various pathological

dysfunctions that must be taken care of right away.

On the other hand, microminerals are required at a part per million level. Microminerals
constitute basic processes for the animal’s life. Some examples of microminerals include:
● Copper is involved in the oxidation-reduction processes (cytochrome oxidase orsuperoxide
dismutase)
● Cobalt is for the formation of RBC and the functions of nerve cells.
● Iodine (thyroid hormones thyroxine & triiodothyronine) has a significant role in the
development and metabolism of animals.
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NATURAL AND SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES OF
MINERALS

A variation of minerals are essential to animal life and these are mainly being supplied by plants
and their products, thus, making the environment and other factors affecting it important. One must
take the species of the plant, type of soil, and the climate and seasonal conditions into consideration
as some minerals, when taken too much can lead to extremities.

In addition, common sources of minerals used in mineral supplements are the following: limestone
for calcium, dicalcium phosphate for phosphorus, common salt for sodium, and calcined magnesite
for magnesium. Trace elements are usually supplied in a salt form, e.g. selenium as sodium
selenite. When considering sources of mineral, the cost, chemical and physical form, and freedom
from impurities are taken into account. It is also necessary to take account of the availability of the
element in question.

Mineral supplementation of animals at pasture can be a problem. Minerals can be

incorporated into free-access feed blocks, which also provide a source of energy and nitrogen.
However, individual animal intake can be variable. Intake depends on season, weather conditions,
the siting and number of blocks (to minimise competition), frequency of renewal and availability
of water. The inclusion of oil or molasses improves palatability.

ACID - BASE BALANCE

Acid-base balance is the balance between input, intake and production, and the output,
elimination, of hydrogen ion. In nutrition, the minerals, including the ones with electrolytic
properties, are normally considered as separate functioning entities. However, physiologically,
electrolytes need to be combined because cells require a specific ratio of anions and cations for
efficient functioning. Physiological processes occur under a narrow range of conditions, especially
with respect to pH. Moreover, enzyme systems, and hence cell metabolism, are sensitive to pH.
Therefore, changes in the acid-base status will widely affect the cell function and animals must
regulate the input and output ions to maintain the acid-base homeostasis. If the electrolyte balance
is not maintained within the cell, metabolic pathways cannot function efficiently, and resources
are diverted to achieve homeostasis at the expense of growth. The balance of acids and bases
influences many functions such as growth rate, appetite, amino acid Page | 36
and energy metabolism, calcium utilisation, vitamin metabolism, intestinal absorption and
kidneyfunction.

Diet is important for maintaining proper intracellular electrolyte balance because of the
metabolizable anions and cations that consume or produce acids during metabolism, thus,
preventing acid-balance disorder such as:

● Metabolic acidosis - an excess of anion results in

the production of hydrogen ions to counterbalance
the anions.
● Alkalosis - an excess of cations requires ions such
as acetate and bicarbonate.

Types of acid-base disorder

● Acidosis: The blood has too much acid (or too

little base), resulting in a decrease in blood pH.
● Alkalosis: The blood has too much base (or too
little acid), resulting in an increase in blood pH.

Types of acidosis and alkalosis

● Metabolic
● Metabolic Acidosis and Metabolic Alkalosis - are caused by an imbalance in the
production of acids or bases and their excretion by the kidneys.
● Respiratory
● Respiratory Acidosis and Respiratory Alkalosis - are caused by changes incarbon
dioxide exhalation due to lung or breathing disorders.

These factors are independent of the particular metabolic or physiological role of a

particular element. The balance of acids and bases influences many functions such as:

● Growth rate
● Appetite
● Amino acid and energy metabolism
● Calcium utilisation
● Vitamin metabolism
● Intestinal absorption
● Kidney function

In addition, changes in cellular pH are often accompanied by changes in blood and urine
pH. Dietary influence in this regard can be assessed by measuring the dietary electrolyte balance,
defined as:

Na+ + K+ - Cl-

Page | 37
where Na+, K+ and Cl- are the concentrations of the elements in mequiv per unit weight. The
dietary electrolyte balance is commonly used to assess the diets of pigs and poultry. Pigs are more
susceptible to excess anions than to cations , hence, its recommended dietary electrolyte balance
is around 250 mequiv/kg. In poultry, the formation of eggshell affects acid-base balance for the
reason that hydrogen ions are produced during the synthesis of calcium carbonate. The
recommended dietary electrolyte balance for laying hens is 200– 300 mequiv/kg.

During heat stress, increased respiratory rate or panting causes respiratory alkalosis andin
poultry and dairy cows, dietary acid-base balance adjustments have been made to alleviatethis.
Moreover, other factors that contribute to the electrolyte balance should be considered and more
subtle assessments may be achieved by calculating the dietary undetermined anion(dUA):

(Na+ + K+ + Ca++ + Mg++) - (Cl- + H2PO4 - + HPO4 - - + SO4 - -)

MAJOR ELEMENTS

Calcium

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body of an animal as it comprises the skeleton
and teeth which actually take up 99% of the body composition. The parathyroid gland is
responsible for the resorption of calcium in the bone. If animals are fed on a low-calcium diet, the
ionic calcium concentration in the extracellular fluid drops causing the stimulation of the
parathyroid gland and the hormone produced by it causes resorption of bone, releasing calcium to
meet the requirements of the animal. It is also involved in enzymatic systems such as in the
transmission of nerve impulses and in a muscle’s contractile properties. Calcium occuring in the
blood plasma is also concerned in blood coagulation as well. In addition, some sources of calcium
minerals include milk, green leafy crops, especially legumes, and sugar beet pulp.

Effects of deficiency: misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints, lameness and stiffness,
osteomalacia (bone softening), thin eggshells, milk fever (falling serum calcium level)

Phosphorus

Phosphorus occurs in phosphoproteins, nucleic acids and phospholipid.It is somehow

associated with calcium whereas it is contained in 85% of teeth and bones. It plays a huge role in
energy metabolism in the sugar-phosphates formation and adenosine di- and triphosphate. Good
sources of phosphorus are milk, cereal grains and fishmeal products. In the case of ruminants,
plasma phosphorus diffuses into saliva and so the large amount of chewing during rumination
makes the saliva as the source of major input of phosphorus into the rumen rather than the food.

Effects of deficiency: rickets, osteomalacia, Pica (depraved appetite), poor fertility,

stiffening of joints and muscle weakness

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Potassium

Potassium is an essential element in the process of body fluids osmotic regulation and in
the acid–base balance in the animal, along with sodium, chlorine, and bicarbonate ions. It mainly
functions as the cation of cells and it is also involved in nerve and muscle excitability and in
carbohydrate metabolism.

Effects of deficiency: retarted/delayed growth, tetany, weakness, severe paralysis

Sodium

Sodium is mostly present in the soft tissues and body fluids of the animal. Similar to
potassium, it plays a role in the transmission of nerve impulses and it is concerned with the acid–
base balance osmotic regulation of the body fluids as sodium is the chief cation of blood plasma,
as well as in other extracellular body fluids. This element is also vital in the absorption of sugars
and amino acids from the digestive tract. Furthermore, the most common source of sodium is salt.

Effects of deficiency: poor growth, poor egg production, dehydration, reproductive interferences

Chlorine

Chlorine is correlated with sodium and potassium in acid–base relationships and osmotic
regulation. It contributes essentially to gastric secretion wherein, chlorine occurs as hydrochloric
acid as well as chloride salts. It is released from the body by the process of perspiration or sweating,
together with potassium and sodium. Like in sodium, the main source of chlorine would be salt
too, and some in pasture grass.

Effects of deficiency: Alkalosis, retarded growth

Sulphur

Sulphur mainly occurs in proteins consisting of the amino acids cystine, cysteine and
methionine in the animal body. It is also a component of cartilage, bone, tendons and the walls of
blood vessels by means of the structural compound, chondroitin sulphate. Also, compounds
containing sulphur play an essential role in elements of the respiratory process from haemoglobin
through to cytochromes. In animal nutrition, monitoring and management of sulphur intake is vital
especially in areas of intensive livestock production where sulphur in soils is not replaced regularly
by fertiliser application.

Effects of deficiency: rumen motility reduction, distress in nervous and respiratory

system

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Magnesium

Magnesium can be found in the animal’s soft tissues and fluids but 70% of the total
magnesium is actually found in the skeleton.It is closely associated with calcium and phosphorus
as it is an essential activator of phosphate transferases and an enzyme activator. In addition,
magnesium is also involved in cellular respiration, cellular biochemistry, and other cellular
reactions as well. Wheat bran, dried yeast and most vegetable protein concentrates, especially
cotton seed cake and linseed cake, are good sources of magnesium.

Effects of deficiency: Hypomagnesemia, nervous irritability and convulsions

TRACE ELEMENTS

Iron

Iron in the body, combined with proteins, is composed of more than 90% and contains
about 3.4 g/kg of the element in haemoglobin. It is present in the blood serum in a protein called
transferrin, which is concerned with the iron transport from one part of the body to another. Iron
is the host of biochemical reactions, particularly in connection with enzymes of the electron
transport chain. It is widely distributed in foods, thus, there are a lot of good sources such as green
leafy materials, most leguminous plants, seed coats, and blood and fish meals.

Effects of deficiency: Anemia, chest pain

Copper

Copper is associated in several enzyme systems, for example, copper is a component of

cytochrome oxidase which is critical in oxidative phosphorylation. It is necessary for haemoglobin
formation and for the normal pigmentation of hair, fur and wool. Although it is said to be available
in all cells of the body, copper is mainly concentrated in the liver, making it its principal storage.
A good source of this element is seeds and its by-products.

Effects of deficiency: Anemia, Poor growth, depigmentation of hair and wool, degeneration of
myocardium or falling disease (in cattles)

Cobalt

Cobalt is essential in the rumen for the synthesis of vitamin B12 for it is required by
microorganisms. Ruminants, in fact, are in more need of cobalt element than non-ruminants
because some of it is wasted in microbial synthesis of organic compounds with no physiological
activity in the host’s tissues. Moreover, it also functions as an activating ion in particular enzyme
reactions in the animal body. Cobalt is sourced from normal pasture herbages.

Effects of deficiency: weight loss, severe anemia, muscular wasting, Pica

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Iodine

Iodine content of an animal body is very low. Its only recognized function is in the
synthesis of the two hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and tetraiodothyronine (T4, thyroxine)
produced in the thyroid gland. The thyroid hormones are responsible for accelerating reactions in
nearly all organs and tissues in the body resulting in the increase of the basal metabolic rate,
accelerating growth and increasing the oxygen consumption of the whole organism. It has been
reported that the richest source of iodine are foods of marine origin such as seaweeds and fishmeal.

Effects of deficiency: goitre (neck swelling), weakness

Manganese

Manganese contained in an animal body is relatively low or small like iodine content.
Traces of the element can be found in the bones, liver, kidney, pancreas, and the pituitary gland. It
functions as an activator for a number of enzymes such as kinases and hydrolases and as a
component of arginase, pyruvate carboxylase, and manganese superoxide dismutase. Moreover,
forages, rice bran, and wheat offals are great sources of manganese.

Effects of deficiency: Retarded growth, skeletal abnormalities, Ataxia (movement

disorder), reporduction failure, Perosis (in chicks)

Zinc

Zinc is widely occuring in every tissue of the animal body with a high concentration in the
skin, hair, and wool. It is also found in many enzymes, one example is carbonic anhydrase. This
element is essential in production, storage, and secretion of hormones, and in cellular respiration
and differentiation, particularly in the nucleic acid metabolism. Some good sources of zinc are
yeast, cereal grains, and animal protein by-products.

Effect of deficiency: Parakeratosis, poor growth, depressed appetite, foot abnormalities,

stiffness of joints

Molybdenum

Molybdenum is essentially involved in purine metabolism and in the development and

activities of the three enzymes namely xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulphite oxidase.
Legumes are the best source of this element, also cereal grains and leafy vegetables.

Effects of deficiency: severe diarrhea, stiffness

Selenium

Selenium is believed to be protecting cell membranes from oxidative damage and it aids in
preserving the integrity of the pancreas ensuring satisfactory fat digestion. Besides the pancreas,
selenium also maintains the integrity of lipid membranes by reducing the amount of vitamin E.
Another function of this element is leaned towards the production of the thyroid
Page | 41
hormones. The main source of selenium for the animals is through supplements
containing protein-bound seleno-methionine, sodium selenite, and selenium-enriched yeast.

Effects of deficiency: egg production and hatchability reduction, myopathy, diathesis.

TOPIC 4
I. Grass and Forage Crops (Definition)
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 Grasses are monocotyledonous plants in the Poaceae family (Gramineae). As
they arecapable of surviving in any habitat, they became the most dominant species in
some types of natural vegetation like prairies and steppes allowing herbivorous animals
to have an important source of food and nutrition. Some species of grasses are grown as
agricultural crops and among them are the most important for domestic livestock e.g.
maize, rice, sorghum, barley, and sugarcane. (Freedman, 2018)
Forage crops are vegetative matter, fresh or preserved, such as grasses, grains,
crucifers, and legumes utilized as feed for animals. An assortment of forage is grown by
farmersaccording to their suitability to the environment and the nutritional needs of their
livestock e.g.
Vetch, alfalfa, corn, and sorghum. Livestock either graze at will in the fields or are given
forage crops that are dried and baled to turn it into hay. Hay making and storing allows
farmers to raiselivestock in extreme climates where the ground is not suitable for growing
crops. (McMahon, 2022).
II. Examples in the Philippines

Grasses

Napier [Pennisetum purpureum (Schum)]. Also known as Elephant grass or

Ugandan grass, is a species of perennial tropical grass used by several dairy
farmers in Nueva Ecija as forage for their dairy animals. Has a harvest time of 45-
55 days and contains about 8% to 12% crude protein. (Marcelo, 2014)

Pakchong 1. Also called as Super Napier, is a cross between an ordinary napier

grass (Pennisetum purpureum) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) by Dr. Krailas
Kiyothong of Thailand’s Department of Livestock Development (DLD) which took him
about 6 years to develop. This hybrid according to Dr. Kiyothong, it yields more crude
protein at about 16% to 18%, grows taller, can harvest 500 tons of grass in a year per
hectare of land (whereas ordinarynapier can only produce 360-400 tons per hectare), and
harvesting can be done every 45-48 days.

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 Guinea [Panicum maximum (Jacq.)]. A species of grass noted for its ability
to produce highly nutritious feeds in large quantities, it’s best performance is
manifested in a humid environment. On top of that, this species also has a very
notable survival capability, it is shade tolerant, can withstand long periods of
drought, can withstand burning, and continuous livestock grazing for long periods
of time. Despite not being able to adapt poorly drained soils it is still suitable for a
wide range of soils, such as shallow or rocky, but performs best in well-drained soil
with medium to high amounts of fertilizer. This species becomes unpalatable and
stemmy if not managed properly, rotational grazing and/or cutting helps with
proper growth. (Rosacia et al., 2007).

Para Grass [Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf.]. A species very tolerant of

water logging which results in rapid and vigorous growth and high yields of
palatable and nutritious fodder. It grows well in warm conditions, and is found to
be very suitable on flatlands and/or areas with drainage problems, however, it isn’t
as resistant to grazing unlike Guinea grass. This species is used primarily in the low
coastal cattle/coconut farms in Davao and Bukidnon highlands. It is easy to establish
from stem cuttings, and can also be heavily stocked once established. (Rosacia et
al., 2007).

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 African Star Grass (Cynodon plectostachyus). A perennial grass
characterized by stout, and rapidly growing stolon forming dense sward. It is
typically tropical in climatic conditions and is productive in dry places with annual
rainfall (of 500 - 750 mm). African star grass is a moderately nutritious grass and
also contains high levels of hydrogen cyanide if overstressed by defoliation,
drought, and heavy grazing/trampling. An incident in Kenya led to the death of
cattle of the same herd after they consumed this grass that was defoliated by larvae
of the Lepidoptera Spodoptera exempta (Georgiadis et al., 1988) This species is
propagated through cuttings and has been found out to be very effective in holding

sandy solid alongside embankments and waterways. In addition, it is also very

tolerant towards grazing and trampling. (Rosacia et al., 2007).

Alabang X (Dichanthium aristatum). A low growing perennial grass

naturalized in the Philippines, and is popularized as a type of grazing grass. It was
named as such because it was first observed at Alabang station, and the X signifies
its lack of identification during that time. This type of grass is often overshadowed
in fertile soils as it is being dominated by other species of grass. But in the poor
soils of Masbate and Bohol with little fertilizers, it has significantly held its own
against other grass species such as cogon and other less productive native species.
Alabang X has a prolific seeding ability and is commercially established through
cuttings and rootstocks. (Rosacia et al., 2007).

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 Signal Grass (Brachiaria decumbens). A relative of Para grass and Ruzi grass, it
has short and dark green leaves and is a creeping and trailing perennial type of
grass. It grows best in wet tropical areas specifically for high rainfall areas. It
significantly produces more dry matter (33,000 lb per acre recorded in one year)
compared to other grasses and it is best performing under intensive use, where
the pasture materials aren’t allowed to accumulate and age. It has a recommended
seeding rate of 4-6 lb per acre. (Rosacia et al., 2007)

Mulato II [Brachiaria hybrid (CIAT 36087)]. Mulato II grass is hybrid

between Brachiariaruziziensis, Brachiaria brizantha, and Brachiaria decumbens. It is a
very good grass with significant capabilities to improve productivity in semi intensive
meat and milk systems. This grass is recommended for areas that have acid soils,
medium to low fertility, long periods of drought, hightemperatures, and high relative
humidity. Because it is an apomictic hybrid, it has stable genes it does not secrete
from one budding to another, meaning it can last many years. It also contains
highly nutritious characteristics with regards to crude protein content (protein
potential being 14% to 22%) and digestibility with a growth period of 25 to 35 days.
The nutritional value of this grass along with excellent dry matter and palatability
leads to high milk and meat production. (Tropical seeds, 2020).

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Legumes

Centro (Centrosema pubescens Benth). Found throughout the Philippines, is

a type of creeping twining, and climbing, perennial forage. This species is adapted
to warm humid areas with an annual rainfall of 1300 mm or more, it grows on a
variety of soils and responds properly to superphosphate on poorer soil types. This
species can withstand heavy grazing and can grow suitably with various pasture
grasses depending on nutrient availability. This grass is by far the most successful
among the pasture legumes in the Philippines, with excellent centro-based pastures
that can be found in the coastal areas of Davao and Bukidnon. It can grow with
other mixtures of grasses for a better array of forage nutrition and it also produces
three times as much beef as the native cogon pastures. (Rosacia et al., 2007).

Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit formerly L. latisifolia). Is a

deep-rooted leguminous tree or shrub widely distributed throughout the tropics. It
is an erect, summer- growing perennial which may develop to a small tree 3 - 9 m
tall. Leucaena leucocephala can survive for decades under heavy cutting or grazing.
It provides high quality forage during the dry season and is very palatable to cattle,
sheep and goats (Jones, 1979). Moreover, it grows well in association with many
subtropical and tropical grasses (Cook et al., 2005). Ipil-ipil is best suited to well-
drained soils in warm climates with more than 760 mm of rainfall. The plant's large
tap root allows it to survive in dry environments and it continues to develop new
shoots from the woody stem even after being chopped or scraped. (Rosacia et al.,
2007)

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 Townsville stylo or Magsaysay [Stylosanthes humilis (Kunth.)]. Townsville stylo,
locally known as Magsaysay stylo, is a rather low growing plant with
narrow, fibrous stems. The Townsville stylo is best suited to locations with yearly
rainfall between 900 and 1140 mm. It's suited to sandy, low-fertility soils with less
competition from companion grasses and it can also be found in heavy soils. The
species has been found to absorb greater quantities of phosphorus per unit of root
tissue per unit of time than other species both at low and high phosphorus
concentrations. But application of phosphorus fertilizer can increase productivity.
(Rosacia et al., 2007).

Stylo (Stylosanthes guyanensis). Is a vigorous, bushy perennial 0.5-1.5 m

high which may become more prostrate under grazing pressure, It can grow up to
five feet in height; stems are coarse and hairy. This plant can grow in a variety of
soil types, but it prefers sandy soil in both dry and wet environments. Stylo grows
well in pasture mixture containing para grass. Guinea grass, Pangola, Napier and
Kikuyu. It competes well with cogon on native pastures. The seedling grows slowly
in the early stage of establishment due to shading by competing grasses. The
species is unpalatable at early stage and becomes palatable when matures and fully
established. Stylo tolerates heavy grazing. Stylo pastures are scarcely damaged if
they are grazed too closely or are trampled too heavily. It can be fed fresh or dried.
(Rosacia et al., 2007)

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 Siratro [Macroptilium atropurpureum (Moc. & Sesse ex, (DC) Urb]. Siratro is
a perennial legume with deeply penetrating roots and trailing stems which may
produce roots anywhere along their length. Siratro is a perennial pasture legume
that produces enormous harvests of excellent protein-rich fodder. It prefers
developed lands to natural soils that have been burned or heavily grazed. The
species is compatible with a range of grasses such as Rhodes, Buffel, Green Panic,
common Guinea, and Nandi and Kasungula Setaria.
(Rosacia et al., 2007).

Calopogonium [Calopogonium muconoides (Desv.)]. The species is a trailing

or twining perennial vine used as a cover crop in tree plantations. Calopogonium is
widely distributed in dryland field crops and with perennial crops. Calopogonium
mucunoides' nutritive value, like that of many other legume forages, is based on its
protein content (Lim Han Kuo, 1967; Evitayani et al., 2004). It can grow in any soil
type and can tolerate lengthy periods of drought. It grows alongside pasture
grasses as long as the soil's nutrient levels are adequate, and it climbs on anything
in its vicinity. Grazing capacity was not a primary consideration in its establishment
since this species is poorly accepted by animals. (Rosacia et al., 2007). Its lack of
palatability is due to its hairy stems and leaves, particularly when the plant is fresh
(Asongwed-Awa et al., 2002).

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 Greenleaf desmodium (Desmodium intortum). Greenleaf desmodium is a
rather coarse spreading plant with thick hairy stems which root down well. It has
more leaves than silverleaf and has shorter internodes compared to silverleaf
desmodium (Desmodium uncinatum). It is more drought tolerant than D. uncinatum
but not recommended for areas receiving less than about 900-1000 mm of annual
rainfall. The species has a high nutritional value and is well-liked by livestock. Once
established, it can survive intense grazing and blends nicely with a variety of other

grasses and competes well with weeds. Vegetative propagation such as stem
cutting can be used to establish Greenleaf. (Rosacia et al., 2007).

III. Silage

Silage. Preserved feeds that had undergone anaerobic fermentation, they are
used tofeed the ruminants during drought season or season when there are no forage
available.

Ensilage. Process of making silage.

Silo. An air tight or semi-air tight structure or storage-sometimes a pit-in which

silage arebeing stored and ready for dispensing, it is also sometimes wrapped in plastics
bags or sheets.

IV. Roles of Plant Enzymes in Ensiling

Fermentation in the silo can be a very uncontrolled process leading to less than
optimalpreservation of nutrients. Silage additives have been used to improve the ensiling
process (example is for better energy and for Dry Matter recovery) with subsequent
improvements in animal performance.
In order for us to understand how plant enzymes can help, one must first understand
theensiling process. Silage fermentation can be divided into 4 phases.
The first phase is characterized by the presence of oxygen after forage is
chopped andpacked in the silo. Plant respiration continues for several hours. And plant
enzymes are activeuntil oxygen is used up. During this phase, excess oxygen can leadPageto| 50
unwanted protein breakdown and excessive heating and growth of yeasts and molds that
are undesirable.
Oxygen can be eliminated by quick packing, even distribution of forage in the storage
structure,

Page | 51
 chopping to a correct length and ensiling at recommended dry maters for specific storage
structures. Oxygen must be eliminated before optimal fermentation can take place
The role of plant enzymes in ensilage is to break down fibers and other
substances intomanageable sugars for easy fermentation, rendering the silage more
digestible during feed out.Another role of plant enzyme in ensilage is to ensure
preservation together with the homofermentative lactic acid bacteria. If the enzymes
work efficiently, they can, together with homofermentative inoculants, improve the
quality of silage.
What are the plant enzymes that are essential in ensilage?

These enzymes include:

Cellulase Enzyme Complex breaks down Cellulose into Glucose, Maltose, Limit Dextrins
Hemicellulases breaks down Hemicellulose into Xylose, Xylans and Arabinose
Amylase breaks down Starch into Glucose and Maltose Invertase
breaks down sucrose into Glucose + Fructose

V. Role of Microorganisms in Ensiling

In the 2nd phase of silage fermentation, under anaerobic conditions is dominated by

microbial activity. Fermentation is controlled primarily by:
a) Type of microorganisms that dominate the fermentation.
b) Available substrate (water soluble carbohydrates) for microbial growth, and
c) Moisture content of the crop.
During the 2nd phase of silage fermentation, these following microorganismsbecome active:
➢ Streptococcus
➢ Lactobacillus
➢ Leuconostoc
➢ Pediococcus

pH drops below 4.5 (becomes acidic)

The primary role of microorganisms during this phase is lactic acid producing
bacteriashould utilize water soluble carbohydrates to produce lactic acid; the primary
acid responsiblefor decreasing the pH in silage. Undesirable fermentations from
microorganisms such as Enterobacteria and Clostridia can dominate if the pH does not
drop rapidly.
Lactate Producing Bacteria
2 Classifications of Lactate Producing Bacteria

• Homofermentative
➢ Convert each mole of glucose/fructose quantitatively to two moles of lactic acid Page | 52
 ➢ Minimum loss of energy during ensiling
• Heterofermentative
➢ One mole of glucose is converted to lactate, ethanol and CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)
➢ Fructose is converted to lactate, acetate and mannitol. (Although, bioconversionof
mannitol is very low under ensiling conditions.

To complete the phases of fermentation, lack of oxygen prevents the growth of

yeast and molds and low pH prevents the growth of most bacteria (either killed or their
activity is temporarily stopped) during the third phase of fermentation. Only
Lactobacillus and some acid tolerant bacteria survive. The last and fourth, stage of silage
fermentation is during feed out andexposure to air. At high moisture above 80%, protein
degrading clostridia are active and are responsible for reversion of ensiling process,
generating basic ions in the silage. pH starts risingand other microbes become active in
ensiling process. Good silage will remain stable and not change in composition or heat
during the third and fourth stages of fermentation.
Silage produced under these conditions has:
➢ High pH
➢ High volatile nitrogen
➢ Low organic acids
➢ High butyric acid

VI. Nutrient Loss During Ensiling

Losses during ensiling is categorized into 4:

I. Pre- ensiling losses / Loss due to Wilting
➢ On cutting the forage crop, aerobic fermentation continues till the Dry Matter ishigh or
pH is low enough to inhibit
➢ In the first 24 hours, net losses are negligible as photosynthesis compensates forthe
fermentation losses
➢ On further wilting the losses are proportional to time.
➢ Silo must be filled within 24h of the harvest of the harvest of forage to avoid pre –
ensiling losses.
➢ These losses may account for 6-10% of total losses
II. Aerobic losses / Losses due to oxidation process
➢ Respiration continues till oxygen is available
➢ Heat is generated which raises the temperature of silo (Around 30-40C higherthan
ambient temperature)
➢ Depends upon the compactness of silo
➢ Losses can be minimized if properly packed
III. Anaerobic losses / Loss due to fermentation process
➢ Due to formation of volatile compounds like Carbon Dioxide, Alcohol, Ammoniaetc.
➢ Due to higher number of heterofermentative lactic acid producing bacteria
➢ Losses may account for 4-6% of total losses
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IV. Effluent losses
➢ Due to high moisture in forage

VII. Classifications of Silages

Here are several classifications used on classifying silage:

3 classification of silage base on moisture:
1. Direct-cut
- contain 70% or higher moisture level
- grain crops and corns
2. Wilted

-contains 60% to 70% moisture level

-grasses and legumes
3. Low moisture

-contains 40% to 60% moisture level

- grass and legumes
Classification of silage with respect to organoleptic criteria

In this classification 3 criteria, namely color, smell and texture, are assessed
subjectivelywithout use of any laboratory equipment
The assessment is called the sensory test, developed by German
AgriculturalAssociation.
Criterion Possible Value
Smell 0-12 points
Preservation of the structure of plant tissues 0-5 points
Color 0-3 points

The total accumulated points will determine its classification.

very good (18-20 points), satisfactory (10-17 points), (bad to moderate ) 4-9
points and(very bad ) 0-3 points (Matheson, E.A., 1995).

5 Classification according to McDonald and Edwards Silage Classification

This was the first detailed classification of silage made by McDonald and
Edwards in1976. Silages are classified based on their chemical composition.
1. Lactate Silages
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 - this kind of silage contain high amount of lactic acid ranging from 80 – 120 g/kg of drymatter.
Also, it is acidic and has a pH level between 3.7-4.2
2. Acetate Silage
- formed when there is deficiency of lactic acid bacteria. Enterobacteria dominates the
fermentation producing acetic acid, instead of lactic acid. But this kind of silage contain trace amounts
of lactic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid. The pH level of acetate silage is slightlyhigher than
lactate silage.
3. Butyrate Silage
- this kind of silage is poorly fermented and did not able to obtain or reach the stable pHlevel,
causing growth saccharolytic clostridia followed by growth of proteolytic clostridia, that further causes
increase in pH level and production of ammonia. This silage has a high amount of ammonia and low
levels of lactic acid and water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC).
4. Wilted Silage
- this kind of silage contains high amounts of dry matter, high pH level, high WSC levelsand
low level of fermentation acids, thus resulting to restrictions in fermentation.
5. Chemically restricted silage
- this kind of silage has low levels of fermentation acids but has high levels of residualsugars,
due to fermentation inhibitors such as acids and formaldehyde.

VIII. Nutritive value of Silage

Table 1. Nutritive value of tropical by products suitable for ensiling and inclusion
rate forfeeding to milk cows.

Page | 55
 CF = crude fiber, CP= crude protein, DM= dried matter, ME=metabolizable energy(Moran, J.
2005).
IX. How to Make Silage

VIDEO LINK: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w0XY_xdU1j4

(Philippine Carabao Center.,2019).

Page | 1
TOPIC 6
PHYSIOLOGY AND MICROBIOLOGY OF RUMEN
A. What is the process of rumination?
There are so many different species of ruminant animals. We have cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo, deer,
elk, giraffes and camels. These animals a a unique digestive systemfrom others and even from our own. Instead
of having once compartment in the stomach, these animals have four. And these four compartments includes
rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. Rumen is the largest section among them, this is the maindigestive
centre. The rumen is filled with tiny microorganisms that can break downgrassand other coarse vegetation that
animals that only have one stomach can't digest. Therumminant animals do not completely chew grass. The
partially chewed grass goes intothe rumen where it is stored and be broken down, these partially chewed grass
will nowbe known as "cud." Then the cud is pushed through the reticulumand then returnedtomouth, this
process is called "rumination." When the re-chewed food is swallowedagainit will now be sent to omasum. In
the omasum, the cud is broken down into evenmoresmaller pieces and then it will be sent in the abomasum
which is the last chamber of thestomach. Then the digested food goes to small intestine where absorption of
nutrientstakes place.
Dairy calves have a four-part stomach when they are born. However, theyfunctionprimarily as a
monogastric (simple-stomached) animal during the first part oftheir lives.At birth the first three compartments
of a calf’s stomach—rumen, reticulum, andomasum—are inactive and undeveloped. As the calf grows and
begins to eat a varietyoffeeds, its stomach compartments also begin to grow and change.
Theabomasumconstitutes nearly 60 percent of the young calf’s stomach, decreasing toabout 8percent in the
mature cow. The rumen comprises about 25 percent of the youngcalf’sstomach, increasing to 80 percent in the
mature cow.

I. How are ruminants differ from monogastric animals?

The biggest difference between ruminant and monogastric animalsis
their stomach compartments. Ruminants have four compartments or chambers: the rumen, reticulum,
omasum, and abomasum. These chambers containmicrobes that deteriorate cellulose. While
monogastric animals have a simplesingle-chambered stomach, they only have one compartment.
Most monogastric
animals are unable to digest much cellulose-based food like grass. Theabomasum, which is also
called the true stomach, is the equivalent of amonogastric stomach chamber.
II. How are large ruminants differ from small ruminants?
Obviously, from the word itself, small and large ruminants differ inbody
build and body size. So, upon looking at this, we can say that they differ fromtheway of living and the
way of handling them. They differ, especially fromthepoint of view of the person who nurtures these
ruminants. Small ruminants areobviously less expensive to care for than large ruminants because
theyfit intosmaller holdings and eat fewer grains than large ruminants. They alsoserveatriple purpose:
they can be used for milk, meat, and fiber.Also, some small ruminants, like sheep and goats, have the
ability to adapt to survive and producein difficult countries. In those countries with dry places that
have a highaltitudeor maybe in countries where it is extremely cold. So, even if other largeruminants
can stand these countries or can give the three purposes that small ruminants can, we can change the
fact that taking care of small ruminantsis
cheaper than having large ruminants. Also, small ruminants have a muchsuperior capacity to recycle
urea than large ruminants. As for this reason, small ruminants digest more efficiently.
Page | 2
B. Rumen microorganisms and their role in Ruminal fermentation

I. Bacteria
Rumen microbes are the major source of protein n cow’s diet. They break
down Rumen Degradable Protein or RDP to amino acids, then ammonia. Ammoniais a major sourceof
nitrogen for microbial growth. The microbes also convert non-protein nitrogen to ammonia. There are
25 billion bacteria inside the rumen, it includes protozoa, bacteria and rumen. The rumen is a
fermentation chamber inwhich bacteria digest cellulose in grasses and feeds then convert themto
fattyacidsand amino acids which are fundamental nutrients used by the cowand basis for thecow’s
production of milk.
Rumen bacteria can be divided into four essential sub populations according to their placeinto the rumen:
1) those attached to the rumen epithelial cells which are less than 1%of the total rumen microbes,
2) those attached to feed particles (~ 70-80% of the total rumen bacteria) 3) those suspended in
the ruminal fluid (~ 20-25% of total rumen bacteria) 4) those attached to the surface of protozoa
or fungal sporangia.
Rumen bacteria are also classified according to their function, and these are:
● Cellulolytics- these bacteria are essential to the rumen environment. It secretes free enzymes depending on the
hydrolysis of lignocellulose into usable sugar enzymes with
specific substrate specificities. In order to perform cellulolytic activity, rumen cellulolytic bacteria must
adhere to cellulose. These species have a wide range of fibrolytic enzymes called glycoside hydrolases
(GHs) for cellulose degradation.
● Hemicellulolytics- these are non-cellulose fibers that degrade the rumen bacteria. They also have over a
hundred glycoside hydrolases. And the majority of cellulolytics can also break down hemicellulose.
● Pectinolytics- these are widely distributed among fungi and bacteria, they can be found in higher plants,
parasitic plants and some plant parasitic nematodes (Shrivastavaet al. 1994; Jayani et al. 2005). These include
the Treponema saccharophilumandLachnospira multiparus. These two bacteria break down the pectin.
Butyrivibrio
fibrisolvens, Bacteriodes ruminicola, Lachnospira multiparus, Succinivibriodextrinosolvens and
Streptecoccus bovis. The three groups of bacteria mentioned above make up the majority of the rumen’s
bacterial population. These three species together with the amylolytics are called primary rumen
bacteria and the other bacterial groupsare called seconders due to using the end products of the primary
ones.
● Amylolytics- a microorganism can be considered as amylolytic when they can grow in the presence of starch as
the primary carbon source and form a degradation zone around the colony. Amylolytics grow faster when
ruminants are fed a higher proportionof grainfeed, fast-growing species with doubling times ranging from 15
minutes to 4hourswhen compared to cellulolytics. As end products, these species generate propionicacid,
lactic acid, succinic acid, format, and CO2. They are involved in the breakdownofstarch and soluble sugar.
The Streptococcus bovis, Ruminobacter amylophilus, Prevotella ruminicola, and Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens are
mainly amylolytic bacteria. While, Succinivibrio dextrinosolvens, Succnivibrio amylolytica,
Selenomonasruminantium, Bifidobacterium ruminantium, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacilluscasei
Page | 3 and
Lactobacillu fermentum are saccarolytic.
● Acetogens- these bacteria is described as the small proportion of rumen bacteria, because, theis reductive
acetogenesis capability from CO2 to H2. In the rumen, theseareacetitomaculum ruminis and Eubacterium
limosum. Although their reductiveacetogenesis capability can be proved in vitro, acetogens have not
functionedasalternative H2 sink in the rumen
● Proteolytics- these are the bacteria that can produce protease enzymes, the enzymes that can break down
peptide bonds in protein molecules. Most of these bacteria are foundinsoil, water, mud, and certain strains of
environmental conditions. The most commonproteolytics are Prevotella ruminicola, Ruminobacter
amylophilus, Clostridiumbifermentans and Colostridium proteoclasticum. Proteolytic activity represents a
majorloss of dietary amino acids for ruminant.
● Acid and urea utilizers- the urea that are transferred across the rumen wall fromtheblood and then it is
hydrolyzed to ammonia by resident a bacteria. Megasphaeraelsdeni and Anaerovibrio lipolytica have a
critical role when the rumen lactic acid productionishigh due to the high grain content feed. Megasphaera
elsdeni also utilizes ureatoammonia (NH3) and CO2.
● Lipolytic- these bacteria cause FFA to be released from esterified plant lipids andthenfollowed by
biohydrogenation, which reduces the number of double bonds. Glycerol isconverted to propionic acid and
succinic acid by Anaerovibrio lipolytica, while fructose, ribose, and lactic acid are converted to acetic acid,
propionic acid, and CO2. The critical importance of Anaerovibrio lipolytica came from its ability to utilize
lactic acidinruminants fed high grain feed. Every fermentation process generates a small amount ofH2.

II. Methanogens
Methanogenesis is carried out by methanogenic archaea, it is a specialized groupofmicrobes found in a
variety of anaerobic environments such as the rumen. Methanogensinthe rumen primarily use H2 and CO2 as
substrates to produce methane, filling an important functional place in the ecosystem.
In a recent studies, they revealed that rumen methanogens constitute 2.8 to4%ofruminal microorganisms and it
belongs to the domain archaea. More than 90%of rumenarchaea are member of genera; Methanobrevibacter
(more than 60%), Methanomicrobium(up to 15%), and rest of the rumen archaea referredtorumen cluster C
approximately 16% or Thermoplasmatalesthat function in the rumenisunknown. Although they are a small
number of rumen microorganisms, the effectsof rumen methanogen archaea on rumen fermentation are significant
as theyarethe main CH4producers in the rumen. Interestingly, a considerable proportionofmethane production in
the rumen is attributed mainly not to the MethanobrevibacterorMethanomicrobium, which constitutes roughly
75% of the rumen archaea. Instead, it isattributedto the rumen cluster C archaea even though they are only 16%of
rumenarchaea, and their fundamental function and biochemical flow in the rumen has remainedunknown yet

III. Protozoa
There are two types of rumen protozoa. Entodinomorphs and holotrichsThese protozoa are unique in
terms of phenotypic and behavioral adaptations that allow them to survive in this harsh anaerobic
environment. Protozoa engulf and digest a wide range of bacteria (Williams and Coleman, 1992) and
can reduce the shedding of potential pathogens from the animal, although the effect is highlydependent
on the composition of the protozoal population present (Stanfordet al., 2010). In addition to the bacteria,
the obligate or facultative anaerobic protozoawith various species of ciliates and flagellates comprise
another group of rumenmicroorganisms. Ciliata makes up nearly half of rumen biomass, while
flagellatesmake up much less. Some researchers believe protozoa are important for digestivefunctions in
the rumen. Other researchers, on the other hand, reported themasvaluable as a nitrogen source to
compensate for nitrogen-poor feed out of season
only for wild ruminants fed primarily with poor quality forage. Protozoa consumenutrients, bacteria,
fungi, and other protozoa. They play an important roleinpreventing rumen acidosis by rapidlyPage | removing
4
 carbohydrates that are easilyfermented. Furthermore, they remove toxic compounds from plants and
reducetherisk of heavy metal poisoning. Protozoa, on the other hand, are not requiredfornormal
digestion.

IV. Viruses
Bacteriophages are viruses that infect rumen bacteria. In fact, the word"bacteriophage" literally
means "bacteria eater," because bacteriophages destroytheir host cells. All bacteriophages are composed
of a nucleic acid molecule that issurrounded by a protein structure. Their number range from 2x107 to
1x108per ml of rumen fluid. Although more than 100 different bacteriophages have beenidentified to
date, this number can be expected to expand to a large number ofbacteriophage species, given that
bacteriophages are unique to all bacterial species. Biotechnological methods can develop bacteriophages
specific to the typeofbacteria, and there may be a potential for suppression of bacteria whose
rateofreproduction in the rumen is to be decreased

V. Parasites
The first study that empirically demonstrates disease-driven increasesinmethane (CH4) yield in
livestock reveals interesting results. Gastrointestinal (GI)parasitism is a disease caused by different
genera of parasites that inhabit thedigestive tract of cattle and sheep, causing inappetence, anemia,
diarrhea, poorgrowth, and economic losses in the herds. Basically, GI parasitismin cattleand
sheep is caused by helminths and protozoa. Gastrointestinal parasite infestationsincrease methane yield
(g CH4/kg of DMI) by up to 33%

C. Manipulation of ruminal fermentation

A significant amount of greenhouse gases around the world is released due to agricultural activities that
play a critical role in food production and the economy. However, global warming and loss of productivity due
to greenhouse gas emissions arising fromtheseactivities have still been debated. While animal products account
for 40%of the world’sagricultural products, a significant proportion of this production comes fromruminants.
Ruminants produce meat and milk, which are precious nutrients for humans, by digestingtheplant’s structural
components that humans cannot digest. Humans provide life safetyandhealthy feed resources for the ruminants
the whole year and ruminants provide essential nutrients for humans. This mutualistic cooperation with
ruminants raised the world’sruminant population enormously while humans supply essential nutrients such as
milkandmeat. However, due to fermentation, ruminants release greenhouse gases such as methane(CH4) and
Page | 5
nitrous oxide (N2O) which are essential contributors to global warming. Inaddition, the formation of nitrous
 oxide is significant during the processing of agricultural land used in ruminant nutrition. Since the 2000s,
scientists have performed numerous studiesto develop new methods for reducing methane gas emissions in
livestock. In those studies, scientists have proposed various methods such as the addition of ionophores,
organicacidsand plant essential oils to feed, immunization, modification of feed composition, rumendefaunation,
alternative hydrogen (H2) sinks, modification of the microbial rumendistribution, and animal breed replacement
with the minimal methane-producing breeds

D. Modification of the feed composition

The composition of the feed given to ruminants significantly affects the productionof methane. Methane
production can be reduced by up to 90% with the modificationof thefeed composition. Fermentation performance
decreases with poor-quality roughage, lackingin vitamins, minerals, proteins, and energy, thus increases methane
production. However, supplementation of minerals and nitrogen sources improves fermentation
performanceandconsequently decreases methane production. Fresh roughage reduces methane production. Fresh
alfalfa, oats, sorghum instead of hay and replacing the 30%wheat strawwithfreshsorghum reduces methane
production by 33%. Feeding with roughage rich in tannins, lowfiber, a high rate of dry matter, and a shorter
digestion time in rumen reduces methane production. Feeding with fast degradable roughage, slowly digestible
starch instead of fasterone, legumes instead of meadow, silage instead of fresh or dry grass, and even
optingforcorn silage with relatively slow degradable starch instead of meadow silage reduces methaneproduction
by up to 28%. Fermentation of starch promotes the production of propionicacidcompared to feeds with low starch
content. Propionic acid production decreases methaneproduction by allowing the greater use of metabolic H2 and
suppressing the protozoathat
are important H2 suppliers for methanogens, by reducing rumen pH. Sugar digestion, ontheother hand, leads to
more methane production than starch. Since sugar can be dissolvedinwater, it is quickly fermented in the rumen
and is mainly used to produce butyricacid. Butyric acid increases methane production when rumen pH is high
and adequate metabolicH2 is present. Methane production can be reduced by up to 90% when the
concentratefeedsrate increases to 90%. On the other hand, in this case, the risk of subacute ruminal
acidosis(SARA) should be considered. Subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) is a metabolic diseaseinhigh-
producing dairy cattle. This disease is caused by feeding high concentrate diets andisdefined as a depression of
ruminal pH below 5.6 at least 3 h/day. Feed with a ratioof 90%concentrates is not sustainable in ruminants.

E. Effects of supplementing organic acid to the feed

Organic acids are not recommended for livestock since they are expensiveanddifficult to apply in grazing
ruminants. However, researchers reported that organic acids(fumarate and malate) reduce the synthesis of ruminal
methane. Organic acids increase the synthesis of propionic acid by using H2 as an alternative biochemical
pathway instead of methane synthesis. Thus, methane synthesis is reduced due to the lack of H2 in the rumen. It
has been reported that methane gas production decreases to a negligible level of 1-2%with an 80-90% concentrate
proportion of feed. However, in this case, the risk of subacuteruminal acidosis (SARA) arises. Further reduction in
rumen pH may be preventedbyanalternative H2 sink created via organic acid supplementation. In this case,
feeding withhighconcentrates, which radically reduces the methane synthesis, may become sustainable

F. Effects of supplementing antibiotics to the feed

Supplementing the feed with the ionophore group of antibiotics to increasetheruminant's yield also
significantly decreased the greenhouse gas synthesis unto the 2000s. Ionophore antibiotics are fermentation
products of different Streptomyces species andotherfungi. They are polyether antibiotics, which exert their
antibiotic action by disruptingthetransport of ions in the cell membranes. Ionophores reduce the H2Page |6
synthesis by
 upto30%via suppressing H2 producers such as Gram-positive bacteria and ciliates rather thanmethanogen archaea.
Although ionophores increase ruminant’s yield, they are not valuablefor reducing methane production in advanced
enterprises where ruminants feedwithconcentrates with high protein and energy to meet the high nutrition needs.
In addition, theinhibition effect of the ionophore antibiotics on methane production is not constant. Although
ionophores generally significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions that arisefrom enteric fermentation, they have
been banned in European Union Countries andTurkeysince 2006 due to various concerns such as developing
resistant microorganisms andfoodresidues. Although it is not prohibited in other countries, the livestock and
agriculture sectoris forced to take alternative and even more effective measures against ionophores due
tothereaction worldwide against the antibiotic additives

G. Effects of probiotic addition to feed

Oeztuerk reported a decrease in acetic acid/propionic acid (A/P) rate and improvedfermentation
performance in an in-vitro study 0.7% alive Saccharomyces cerevisiaesupplemented to the ruminant feed.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of yeast (single-celled fungus microorganisms). It is reported that the
addition of yeast to the diet reducesmethane production by increasing the synthesis of propionic acid, reducing the
number ofprotozoa, and increasing animal yield reported that yeast supplementation accelerates thesynthesis of
acetic acid by acetogens and consequently suppresses methane synthesisthrough the consumption of metabolic H2
in the rumen. Adding yeast to the feedalsocontributes to the stabilization of the rumen pH, thus ruminants fed with
concentratesbecome more resistant to subacute rumen acidosis (SARA).
Probiotics are typically used to improve gastrointestinal health, regulate, andbalancegut microbes,
promote growth and development of animals, and improve the host resistanceto diseases. In ruminants, probiotics
are administered to target the rumen (main site of feeddigestion) where they influence rumen fermentation
especially on feed digestibilityanddegradability and rumen microbiota. Probiotic positively affect cellulolysis and
synthesis of microbial protein during digestion and stabilizes rumen pH and lactate levels. In addition, probiotics
can enhance nutrient absorption. Direct-fed probiotic have been shown toreduceruminal acidosis.

Page | 7
 ANIMAL NUTRITION
TOPIC 7: NUTRIENTS REQUIREMENTS FOR ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION:
According to the book of Animal Nutrition 7th edition (P. McDonald, 2010), the amount of nutrients required
by animals are often relate with the term FEEDING STANDARDS. Can also be termed as NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS and NUTRIENT ALLOWANCES
✔ Nutrient Requirement- the average amount that is needed for doing a particular action
✔ Nutrient allowance- is a margin between animals, to show variations in the requirements that is
needed between individual animals.
To sum it up, animals need (require) nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, amino acids, water, vitamins
and minerals for two purposes – either for maintenance’ or ‘production’. (N. Gannon, 2019)

REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE

Maintenance nutrient requirement refers to the quantity of nutrients to keep the animal alive in a thermo-
neutral environment (that is, their ideal comfort zone where they are not too hot or too cold) at ‘steady state’ such
that the animal is neither gaining nor losing body weight. (P. McDonald et. al, 2010)

All of the nutrients required for vital processes such as breathing, blood circulation, appropriate kidney,
brain, and cell functioning are included in the maintenance requirements, but there is no allocation for physical
activity.

a. Basal and fasting metabolism

✔ Basal metabolism- also called as Basal metabolic rate (BMR), which refers to the heat production of
an animal resting in a thermally neutral environment. It is the amount of heat produce by an animal in
which its measurement is the same amount of the NE or net energy that animals need to meet the
demands of maintenance.
▪ measured by eliminating or depriving of food to animal.
▪ With the absence of food to the animal, the breakdown of the body tissues will support the
physiological process of the body.
Condition to measure metabolic rate:
I. Good nutritive condition- to make sure that the previous diet of the animal has been adequate
with regards to energy and protein.
II. Environmental Temperature
III. Rest- to achieve minimum muscular capacity.
IV. Post- absorptive state- condition where in the digestion or absorption of food stops. In other
words, it is an overnight starvation for human, but in animals such as ruminants, their digestion
and absorption as well as the metabolism may take up for days after the feeding stops. It is
suggested that it may take up to 4 days which is true for the pigs, and 2 days for fowls.

✔ Fasting metabolism- refers to the heat that an animal produces after its last feed.
▪ Much appropriate to use for ruminants.
▪ Fasting may limit activity, but even a standing animal may affect the heat it produces, so in farm
animal studies, ‘fasting metabolism’ may also refer to ‘basal metabolism’
▪ A term that is often used with regards to fasting metabolism is ‘fasting catabolism’, wherein it is
the amount of energy that is lost by a fasting animal in their urine.

b. Energy balance and feeding trials

✔ The energy required for maintenance is the one who shows energy equilibrium or the zero-energy
balance.
✔ This can be measured by feeding the animals.
✔ Adjusting the quantity if food can be adjusted until it reaches the exact energy equilibrium. It is also
advisable to use a model of same kind to estimate the energy intake that will meet the equilibrium. With
Page | 8
 similar approach to this, it can also be in which the animals are kept in calorimeters. The animals are
given know quantities of food energy, and their live weights gain or losses will be measure.
✔ Feeding trials help determining the energy requirements for maintenance and for production.

c. Influence of climate on energy metabolism and requirements for maintenance

✔ Climate has the greatest influence on energy requirement, especially for those animals who lived in cold
weather places and have low level of maintenance. Mammals and birds are homeotherms and have to
maintain their body temperature constant by producing heat to the environment.
✔ There are two main types of heat lost: SENSIBLE LOSSES by radiation, conduction and convection
from their body surface; and EVAPORATIVE LOSSES of water from the body surface and lungs
✔ Heat lost may also vary on the characteristic of animals such as its coat and as well as the environment
such as its temperature, humidity, the velocity of air, and solar radiation. In other words, heat lost may
lost based on both the animals and the environment.
✔ Rain increases heat loss both by reducing insulation and through the heat of vaporization. In example,
an adult sheep with a 50 mm coat, 30 mm of rain per day can raise the critical temperature by 2–6 °C.

REQUIREMENTS FOR GROWTH - SIGMOID GROWTH CURVE; RATES BY WHICH CHEMICAL

COMPONENTS INCREASE

SIGMOID GROWTH CURVE

● The pattern by which an animal grows from their conception up to its maturity is called the sigmoid (s-
shaped) growth curve.
● Different factors such as, environment and nutrition may cause the sigmoid growth curve to turn away from
its original curve.

Sigmoid
growth
curve by
a dairy cow

(McDonald et.al, 2010)00

● The sigmoid growth curve above shows the effect of environment and nutrition to the growing animal. During
the fetal period and from birth to puberty, the rate of growth increases; after puberty, it progressively
decreases as the animal reaches maturity. (McDonald et. al, 2010)

Animal growth and animal nutrition are connected with each other in a way that they both can influence
each other. The growth pattern of an animal determines its nutrient requirements

Animals develop in height and weight, but they also display signs of maturity What isPage |9
referred to this
is the development by which, we mean that the animal's anatomical components such as legs, organs (e.g., liver),
and tissues (e.g., muscle) grow at different rates, causing the proportions of the animal to change as the animal
matures or developed. By this, the animals' anatomical components all grow at various rates; therefore, the
proportions of the animal alter as it grows.

The Chemical Composition of gain

REQUIREMENTS OF PIGS FOR ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

Energy comes primarily from carbohydrates and fats. Swine are monogastric omnivores who, in
comparison to ruminants, demand higher energy and lower fiber diets. As a result, large amounts of grains are
frequently included in swine meals. Grains are a good source of energy.

PROTEIN

Protein is important for many functions, including reproduction and lean muscle growth. The “building blocks”
of protein are amino acids, and swine meals must include

10 essential amino acids.

✔ Arginine
✔ Isoleucine
✔ Histidine
✔ Leucine
✔ Methionine Structure of Isoleucine
✔ Valine
✔ Phenylalanine
✔ Typtophan
✔ Threonine

Source of protein which is essential for pigs:

✔ Soy bean
✔ Field peas
✔ Meat and bone meal (Soy bean meal)
✔ Fish meal
✔ Corn
✔ Spray-dried egg
✔ Poultry meal

5 (Meat and bone meal)

● Minerals – the most essential minerals added to swine rations are calcium, phosphorus, and salt (calcium
and chlorine). Iron, zinc, iodine, selenium, copper and manganese are minor minerals that requires
attention.

● Vitamins are important for normal body functions and are required in small amounts. Young grasses and
legumes are a good source of vitamins. Vitamin levels in the ration are more of an issue when swine do
not have access to good quality pasture. Vitamins A, D, E, K, B12, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, and
choline are the most commonly given vitamins to swine rations.

● Water – having a consistent supply of clean, fresh water is essential.

Page | 10
REQUIREMENTS FOR WOOL PRODUCTION
 Growth of the fiber growth is usually a continuous process. Genetics, nutrition, and animal physiology and
environment are essential in this process. Potentials for wool production and wool quality are genetically
determined. The degree of realization of that potential is a function level and nutritional consistency and
environmental variables are important.

Wool growth varies seasonally and is associated with length of day as well as the availability and quality of
feed/forage, are all factors to consider. More rapid growth has been measured during the season when days are
longest.

Factors that can affect wool growth:

✔ age,
✔ temperature,
✔ physiological processes (e.g., lactation, parturition).
✔ bacterial, viral, fungal and parasitic diseases
✔ exogenous chemicals
✔ hormones
✔ weather

In general, the effects of nutrition on wool production are associated with quantity rather than quality.
Increased nutrient intake can increase wool production, within limits.

What nutrients does wool fiber need to grow?

✔ Energy
✔ Protein or amino acids- Quality food sources such as grains, hay, forages, etc.
✔ Fats
✔ Vitamins
✔ Minerals- mineral supplements which is fiber growth

MINERAL AND VITAMIN REQUIREMENTS FOR GROWTH

MINERALS
● When compared to nutrients like nitrogen and energy, minerals are only required in small quantity. However,
mineral deficiency can have a significant impact on productivity, especially on reproductive performance
and health.
● It is well established that specific mineral elements play an important functions in the body, and they must
therefore supplied in the feed.
● Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and fluorine are minerals found in bones and teeth that provide
strength to the body’s skeletal structure. They are also constituents of soft tissue.
● Elements including calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, manganese, copper, zinc, and selenium
play essential roles in enzyme systems.
● Sodium, potassium, and chlorine function as soluble salts to regulate osmotic pressure, acid base
balance and pH in the body fluids in addition to water metabolism.
● Iron, cooper, and cobalt form vitamin B12 through rumen microbes which is later required for the
synthesis of hemoglobin.
● Iodine is a key component in a hormone released from the thyroid gland and it functions in many ways in
soft tissues.
● Sulphur is found in organic compounds, particularly in Sulphur containing certain amino acids.

VITAMIN
● Vitamin requirements are frequently determined using diets containing synthetic sources of vitamins, whose
availability may well be higher than that of natural sources in foods. Page | 11
● Another factor to be considered when formulating diets to provide requirements for vitamins is that many
vitamins are unstable and are partly destroyed by heat and light exposure. As a result, the way in which
foods are stored and processed has a significant impact on their vitamin content.

NUTRITIONAL CONTROL OF GROWTH

● An animal’s growth rate is controlled by its nutrient intake, and particularly by its energy intake.
● Energy has been defined as the “pacemaker” of animal production, and both natural and imposed variations
in the animal’s energy supply will be reflected in its growth rate.
● The maximization of lean tissue (or protein) deposition, which is one of the two objectives in controlling
growth may sometimes be combined into one. To achieve this, the animal’s protein supply should be
optimal.
● Protein supply should match energy supply in order to guarantee proper energy distribution between protein
and fat deposition.

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TOPIC 8:
Nutritional Related Metabolic Disorders
Metabolic Disorders
● are conditions that affect any aspect of metabolism.
● occur when the metabolism process fails and causes the body to have either too much or too little of the
essential substances needed to stay healthy.
● It may be inherited or acquired, the latter being more common and significant.
● Are clinically important because they affect energy production or damage tissues critical for survival.

Production Related Metabolic Disorders

Pregnancy toxemia
● Also known as ketosis and is a common metabolic disorder of ewes that is caused by the increased energy
requirements in the late stage of pregnancy being greater than the energy provided by the diet consumed.
● It occurs when drastically low levels of glucose in the blood damage the brain and result in dehydration,
kidney failure and potentially death.
Symptoms
being separated from the mob
being drowsy or comatose
not eating
tremors
blindness
lying on their side for 3–4 days

Fatty liver disease of cattle

● It is a major metabolic disorder of many dairy cows in early lactation and is associated with decreased
health status and reproductive performance.
● It occurs as a result of the cow breaking down too much fat for the liver to process properly.
Symptoms

lower milk yields

depressed appetite
incidences of milk fever
ketosis
mastitis Page | 13
 retained fetal membranes
reduced fertility
Hyperlipemia and Hepatic Lipidosis in Large Animals
● Hyperlipemia is overproduction of triglyceride and is seen most commonly in ponies, miniature horses, and
donkeys and less frequently in standard-size adult horses. ● It has negative energy balance which triggers
excessive mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue, leading to increased hepatic triglyceride synthesis
and secretion of very-low-density lipoproteins, concomitant hypertriglyceridemia, and fatty infiltration of the
liver.
● In ponies, it is usually a primary disease process associated with obesity, pregnancy, lactation, stress, or
transportation.
● It may develop secondary to any systemic disease that results in anorexia and a negative energy balance.
Symptoms
lethargy
weakness
inappetence
decreased water intake
diarrhea
Often, there is a history of prolonged anorexia, rapid weight loss, and previous obesity.

Exertional Myopathies in Horses

● It is a syndrome caused by muscle fatigue, pain, or cramping associated with exercise. Less common
exertional myopathies that cause exercise intolerance without muscle necrosis include mitochondrial
myopathies and forms of polysaccharide storage myopathy in Warmblood horses.
● It produces necrosis of striated skeletal muscle and is termed exertional rhabdomyolysis. Symptoms
excessive sweating
tachypnea
tachycardia
muscle fasciculations
reluctance or refusal to move
firm, painful lumbar and gluteal musculature.

Metabolic Storage Disorders and Inborn Errors of Metabolism

Storage diseases and inborn errors of metabolism are classified as either genetic or acquired. These diseases are
characterized by the accumulation or storage of specific lysosomal enzyme substrates or byproducts
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because of partial or complete deficiency of those enzymes.
Genetic storage diseases are named according to the specific metabolic byproduct that accumulates in the
lysosomes. Animals are typically normal at birth, then manifest clinical signs within the first weeks to months of
life. These diseases are progressive and usually fatal, because specific treatments do not exist.

In small animals, the gangliosidosis (GM1 and GM2) are seen in Siamese, Korat, and domestic cats, and in
Beagle crosses, German Shorthaired Pointers, and Japanese Spaniels. Sphingomyelinosis is seen in German
Shepherds and Poodles and in Siamese and domestic shorthaired cats.
Glucocerebrosidosis is seen in Australian Silky Terriers and Dalmatians.
Ceroid lipofuscinosis is seen in English Setters, Cocker Spaniels, Dachshunds, Chihuahuas, Salukis, Border
Collies, and domestic cats.
Mannosidosis is seen in Persian and domestic cats.
Glycogenosis is seen in Silky Terriers and in domestic shorthaired and Norwegian forest cats. Globoid cell
leukodystrophy (Krabbe disease) is seen in Cairn Terriers, West Highland White Terriers, Beagles, Bluetick
Hounds, Poodles, and domestic shorthaired cats. Mucopolysaccharidosis type I is seen in Siamese, Korat, and
domestic shorthaired cats; type IV is seen in Siamese cats.
In dogs, mucopolysaccharidosis is seen in Miniature Pinschers, Plott Hounds, and mixed-breed dogs and is
associated with lameness.

Diseases associated with decreased RBC survival and anemia include pyruvate kinase deficiency in Basenjis,
Beagles, and West Highland White and Cairn Terriers; phosphofructokinase deficiency in English Springer and
American Cocker Spaniels; and porphyria in Siamese and domestic shorthaired cats.

In large animals, α-mannosidosis occurs in Angus, Murray Gray, Simmental, Galloway, and Holstein cattle. β-
Mannosidosis is seen in Saler cattle and Nubian and Nubian-cross goats. Generalized glycogenosis (GM1) is seen
in Holstein cattle and Suffolk sheep.

Generalized glycogenosis (GM2) is seen in Shorthorn and Brahman cattle, and in pigs. Globoid cell
leukodystrophy is seen in polled Dorset sheep.

Other identified diseases that are manifest by neurologic signs and appear to be inherited include neuronal
lipodystrophy in Angus and Beefmaster cattle, shaker calf syndrome of horned Hereford cattle, maple syrup
urine disease of Hereford and polled Shorthorn cattle, and hereditary neuraxial edema of polled and horned
Hereford and Hereford-Friesian cross cattle.
There have been no reports of lysosomal storage diseases in horses; however, inherited diseases manifest by
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neurologic signs include inherited myoclonus of Peruvian Paso foals and congenital encephalomyelopathy in
Quarter horses.

Furthermore, the acquired storage diseases are caused by ingestion of plants that contain inhibitors of specific
lysosomal catabolic enzymes. Chronic ingestion of locoweed plants (Astragalus or Oxytropis spp) results in an
acquired neurologic storage disease. Several toxic components, including locoine, swainsonine n-oxide, and
indolizidine alkaloids, interfere with α-mannosidase activity. Therefore, horses are most susceptible to intoxication;
however, cattle, sheep, and goats can also be affected.

Disorders of Magnesium Metabolism in Horses

● are mostly because of underlying problems associated with mineral absorption from the digestive tract which
mostly happens in the small intestine. It can also be due to excretion by the kidneys and problems relating
to the conditions needed to meet in regards to pregnancy, lactation and growth.
Hypermagnesemia
● is a disorder associated with the excessive intake of magnesium sulfate but is rare in horses.
● Excessive magnesium that has been digested is excreted through urinating but severe cases of overdosing
on magnesium has been linked to heart and renal problems. Symptoms
Constipation
Sweating (within 4hrs of overdosing)
Muscle weakness (within 4hrs of overdosing)
Rapid heartbeat and breathing
Cardiac arrest (for high blood magnesium levels)
Hypomagnesemia
● The cause of magnesium deficiency is caused by a decrease in intake of magnesium in a horse's diet as well
as reduced absorption and increased excretion.
● It is more likely to happen to high-producing mares.
● Horses with this deficiency are potentially to have poor tolerance in exercising as they are more likely to
fatigue and are vulnerable to tying up. These horses are more susceptible to building up lactic acid and
usually have behavioral issues to do with muscle cramping.
● Performing horses can experience magnesium deficiency leading to behavioral problems making it hard for
trainers to worm with them.
● In terms of muscle contraction, magnesium deficiency leads to calcium leaking back into the cell membrane
causing an effect that doesn't let the muscle to completely relax, putting the horse under continuous stress.
● Lack of magnesium can also lead to tetany which causes nerve endings to be hypersensitive and heightens
the pain and noise experienced by the horse. Page | 16
 Symptoms
Nervousness
Muscle tremors
Ataxia
Hyperpnea
Potential for collapse
Death

Hypomagnesemic Tetany in Cattle and Sheep

Hypomagnesemic tetany
● is a metabolic disorder distinguished by hypomagnesemia and reduced concentration of the MG in the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
● Adults are more likely to be diagnosed with this disease due to the loss of Mg in milk. It mainly affects
animals who have grazed on lush grass pastures or green cereal crops. ● It occurs due to the decrease in
plasma Mg concentration when absorption of the maintenance and lactation of dietary Mg is not met. (3mg/kg
body weight for maintenance) (120mg/kg milk for lactation)
Symptoms
Hyperexcitability
Muscular spasms
Convulsions
Respiratory distress
Collapse
Death

In the most acute forms of clinical symptoms, such as for affected cows, which may appear to be grazing normally,
suddenly throw up their heads, bellow, gallop in a blind frenzy, fall, and exhibit severe paddling convulsions. These
convulsive episodes may be repeated at short intervals, and death usually occurs within a few hours. In less severe
cases, the cow is obviously ill at ease, walks stiffly, is hypersensitive to touch and sound, urinates frequently, and
may progress to the acute convulsive stage after a period of as long as 2–3 days. This period may be shortened if
the cow is transported or driven to a fresh pasture.

Then, other domestic animals, such as hens, have hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia, and the signs shown depend
on which predominates. Tachycardia and loud heart sounds are characteristic signs of hypomagnesemia.

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Magnesium as Equine Dietary Supplement
Magnesium (Mg)
● is an essential macro mineral that veterinarians use for treating horse injuries and maintaining their health.
This is used due to the various roles the macromineral has in a body.
● it makes up to 60% of the amount in the skeleton and 30% in the muscles. ● is involved in 300 biochemical
reactions and works side by side with calcium in nerve transmission and muscle contraction, where calcium
causes the muscles to contract while magnesium causes the muscles to relax.
● plays a part in muscle contraction because as it enters the cell membrane, it aids in pushing the calcium out
of the cell.
● is an essential macroelement that is required for cellular energy-dependent reactions involving adenosine
triphosphate and for the regulation of calcium channel function. ● It also plays a role in insulin resistance and
equine metabolic syndrome (EMS).

A study conducted by six veterinarians at the Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary
Medicine at Ohio State University found that the required magnesium dosage of an average horse should amount
to 13 milligrams per kilogram of bodyweight per day.

In terms of dietary benefits, magnesium plays a part in minimizing equine obesity which in turn lessens the risk of
laminitis, inflammation and the damage of the tissue regarding the hoof and the coffin bone.

Epsom salts or magnesium sulfate is a supplement that has been increasingly used by horse owners. They are best
known as laxatives due to their effect of causing water into the bowel but are not recommended for daily usage.
They are affordable and because of this, there is always a risk of excessive doses added by horse owners to their
horses' diet. Overdosing can lead to effects related to diarrhea.
Subclinical hypomagnesemia in critically ill animals
Subclinical hypomagnesemia
● is common in critically ill humans and animals and increases the severity of the systemic inflammatory
response syndrome; worsens the systemic response to endotoxins. Symptoms
ileus
cardiac arrhythmias
refractory hypokalemia
hypocalcemia

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Metabolic Disorders of Horses
Disorders of Calcium Metabolism in Horses
Hypocalcemic tetany in horses is uncommon but can develop after prolonged physical exercise, such as endurance
rides, or transport (transport tetany) and in lactating or nursing mares (lactation tetany). A low level of calcium in
the blood (hypocalcemia) can be caused by decreased absorption from the intestines, by increased loss through the
milk, urine, or sweat, or by changes in bone metabolism.

The signs that occur in this disease are the level of the active form of calcium in the blood and most relate to
muscular spasms, tremors, and stiffness. Other signs include inability to chew, spasm of the jaw muscles, drooling,
lying down, seizures, and irregular heart rhythms. In severe cases, synchronous diaphragmatic flutter may develop.
In this condition, the diaphragm contracts at the same time as the heart to produce loud thumping noises (heard with
a stethoscope) and usually visible contractions in the flank area.

This can be cured through calcium solution given intravenously usually resulting in full recovery. It might need
repeated treatments over several days and in the stage of pregnancy, mares should be fed a balanced ration that
contains adequate amounts of calcium and phosphorus in the correct
ratio. They should be fed high-quality forage such as alfalfa or calcium-containing mineral mixes.

Disorders of Magnesium Metabolism in Horses

Most disorders of magnesium metabolism are due to problems associated with absorption of the mineral from the
digestive tract, excretion by the kidneys, and varying requirements of the body for pregnancy, lactation, and growth.
The differences in anatomy between species are associated with the importance of disorders of magnesium occurring
in a particular species. In horses, disorders of magnesium metabolism are much less common than in cattle and
sheep, in which magnesium is mainly absorbed from the rumen in adult animals. Horses absorb magnesium mainly
from the small intestine. Too much magnesium in the blood (hypermagnesemia) is rare, but horses receiving
excessive doses of magnesium sulfate for constipation may show signs of sweating, muscle weakness, and rapid
heartbeat and breathing rate. Cardiac arrest can occur with very high blood magnesium levels.

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