Maryknoll School of Lupon, Inc.

KambingBaratua Street, Poblacion, Lupon, Davao Oriental

LEARNING MODULE
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
GRADE 12/ ____ QUARTER

Weeks ___ and ___

Learner’s Name: ____________________________________________________________

Section: _________________________________________________________________

Teacher: MON D. BALANI

CONTENT: STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES:

CARBOHYDRATES and LIPIDS

CONTENT STANDARD:

1. Categorize the biological molecules according to their structure and function.

2. Explain the role of each biological molecule in specific metabolic processes.

PERFORMANCE STANDARD:

1. Construct the structures of biological molecules from indigenous or

recyclable materials.

PERFORMANCE:

1. Draw structures of different carbohydrates using the Fischer and Haworth

projections.

LEARNING COMPETENCIES:

1. Identify the different structures and functions of carbohydrates and lipids.

2. Describe the structure mono-, di-, and polysaccharides.
3. Distinguish between harmful and beneficial lipids.
4. Explain the different roles of carbohydrates and lipids.
5. Give importance to the different biological molecules in living things.

FORMATION STANDARD:

1. The learners shall be able to easily identify the type of biomolecules

according to their structures and functions.

TRANSFER GOAL:

1. The learners will appreciate the roles of the different biomolecules in human
and in other living things.
Key Points
• Monosaccharides are simple sugars made up of three to seven carbons, and they can exist
as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules.
• Glucose, galactose, and fructose are monosaccharide isomers, which means they all have the
same chemical formula but differ structurally and chemically.
• Disaccharides form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction (a
condensation reaction); they are held together by a covalent bond.
• Sucrose (table sugar) is the most common disaccharide, which is composed of the monomers
glucose and fructose.
• A polysaccharide is a long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds; the chain
may be branched or unbranched and can contain many types of monosaccharides.
• Fats provide energy, insulation, and storage of fatty acids for many organisms.
• Fats may be saturated (having single bonds) or unsaturated (having double bonds).
• Unsaturated fats may be cis (hydrogens in same plane) or trans (hydrogens in two different
planes).
• Omega-3 fatty acid and omega-6 fatty acid are essential for human biological processes, but
they must be ingested in the diet because they cannot be synthesized.
• Steroids are lipids because they are hydrophobic and insoluble in water, but they do not
resemble lipids since they have a structure composed of four fused rings.
• Cholesterol is the most common steroid and is the precursor to vitamin D, testosterone,
estrogen, progesterone, aldosterone, cortisol, and bile salts.
Key Terms
• isomer: Any of two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but with different
structure.
• carbohydrate: A sugar, starch, or cellulose that is a food source of energy for an animal or
plant; a saccharide.
• glucose: a simple monosaccharide (sugar) with a molecular formula of C6H12O6; it is a
principal source of energy for cellular metabolism
• hydrogenation: The chemical reaction of hydrogen with another substance, especially with an
unsaturated organic compound, and usually under the influence of temperature, pressure and
catalysts.
• ester: Compound most often formed by the condensation of an alcohol and an acid, by
removing water. It contains the functional group carbon-oxygen double bond joined via carbon
to another oxygen atom.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates can be represented by the stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number
of carbons in the molecule. Therefore, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in
carbohydrate molecules. The origin of the term “carbohydrate” is based on its components: carbon
(“carbo”) and water (“hydrate”). Carbohydrates are classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

1. MONOSACCHARIDES
• Monosaccharides (mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sweet”) are simple sugars. In
monosaccharides, the number of carbons usually ranges from three to seven. They can
exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions they are
usually found in ring forms.
• Depending on the number of carbons in the sugar, they also may be known as trioses
(three carbons), pentoses (five carbons), and or hexoses (six carbons).
• If the sugar has an aldehyde group (the functional group with the structure R-CHO), it is
known as an aldose, and if it has a ketone group (the functional group with the structure
RC(=O)R’), it is known as a ketose.
COMMON MONOSACCHARIDES
1. Glucose (C6H12O6)- is a common monosaccharide and an important source of
energy.
2. Galactose- a milk sugar.
3. Fructose- found in fruit.

• Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6),
they differ structurally and stereochemically.
• This makes them different molecules despite sharing the same atoms in the same
proportions, and they are all isomers of one another, or isomeric monosaccharides.
• Glucose and galactose are aldoses, and fructose is a ketose.

TYPES OF STRUCTURE FOR CARBOHYDRATES

1. Fischer projections are used for sugars in their open-chain form.

2. Haworth projections are often used to depict sugars in their cyclic forms.
 EXERCISE NO. 1

A. Draw the structures of Fructose in Fischer and Haworth projections.

2. DISACCHARIDES
• Disaccharides (di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction
(also known as a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis).
• A covalent bond formed between a carbohydrate molecule and another molecule (in this case,
between two monosaccharides) is known as a glycosidic bond.
• Glycosidic bonds (also called glycosidic linkages) can be of the alpha or the beta type.

COMMON DISACCHARIDES

1. Lactose- is a disaccharide consisting of the monomers glucose and galactose. It is found

naturally in milk.
2. Maltose- or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed by a dehydration reaction between two
glucose molecules.
3. Sucrose- or table sugar, is the most common disaccharide which is composed of the
monomers glucose and fructose.

EXERCISE NO. 2

A. Maltose is a disaccharide formed by two molecules of Glucose. Draw its structure in Haworth
Projection.
3. POLYSACCHARIDES

• A long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds is known as a polysaccharide

(poly- = “many”). The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types
of monosaccharides. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are primary examples of
polysaccharides.

COMMON POLYSACCHARIDES

1. Starch- is the stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of glucose monomers
that are joined by α1-4 or 1-6 glycosidic bonds. The starch in the seeds provides
food for the embryo as it germinates while the starch that is consumed by humans is
broken down by enzymes into smaller molecules, such as maltose and glucose.
2. Glycogen- is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates. It is
made up of monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is
a highly branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells.
3. Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer. Cellulose is made up of glucose
monomers that are linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds. Every other glucose monomer
in cellulose is flipped over, and the monomers are packed tightly as extended long
chains.

LIPIDS
Lipids are the substances that are soluble in nonpolar organic solvents but are usually
insoluble in water such as fats.

A fat molecule consists of two main components: glycerol and fatty acids.

1. Glycerol is an alcohol with three carbons, five hydrogens, and three hydroxyl (OH) groups.
2. Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons with a carboxyl group attached and may
have 4-36 carbons; however, most of them have 12-18.

In a fat molecule, the fatty acids are attached to each of the three carbons of the glycerol
molecule with an ester bond through the oxygen atom. During the ester bond formation, three
molecules are released. Since fats consist of three fatty acids and a glycerol, they are also called
triacylglycerols or triglycerides.
SATURATED vs UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

1. Saturated fatty acids are saturated with hydrogen since single bonds increase the
number of hydrogens on each carbon. Stearic acid and palmitic acid, which are commonly
found in meat, are examples of saturated fats.
2. Unsaturated fatty acids are formed when the hydrocarbon chain contains a double bond.
Oleic acid is an example of an unsaturated fatty acid. Unsaturated fats help to lower blood
cholesterol levels whereas saturated fats contribute to plaque formation in the arteries.
Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are called oils
▪ If there is only one double bond in the molecule, then it is known as a
monounsaturated fat; e.g. olive oil.
▪ If there is more than one double bond, then it is known as a polyunsaturated fat;
e.g. canola oil.
▪ If hydrogens are present in the same plane, it is referred to as a cis fat; if the
hydrogen atoms are on two different planes, it is referred to as a trans fat. The
cis double bond causes a bend or a “kink” that prevents the fatty acids from
packing tightly, keeping them liquid at room temperature.
Waxes

Waxes are nonpolar lipids that plants and animals use for protection and have many functions
in society.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules that make up the bilayer of the plasma membrane
and keep the membrane fluid.
Steroids
Steroids, like cholesterol, play roles in reproduction, absorption, metabolism regulation, and
brain activity.
• Cholesterol
Cholesterol is the most common steroid and is mainly synthesized in the liver; it is the
precursor to vitamin D.

EXERCISE NO. 3
A. Search for the 6 hidden word/s related to lipids. Give its definition and functions.

D Q C U C H O L E S T E R O L

S A T U R A T E D F A T S S G

T X L K O I S I N B T Y D A H

E N Z G L Y C E R O L U F W V

R H X J P A A D M V R I G Y C

O P C H Y U Q F L C E O H R I

I L V T A Y W G K X W P J P O

D A T E D I R E C Y L G I R T

S A B G S T E H J Z Q L K F N

F M N F D R G L Y C E R I S Z
 MODULE ASSESSMENT

MULTIPLE CHOICE.
Directions: Read each question carefully. Encircle the letter of your answer.

1. Which elements are present in fats and oils?

a. Carbon and hydrogen only c. Carbon and oxygen only
b. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen d. None of the above
2. Which one of the following is a monosaccharide?
a. Fructose b. Glycogen c. Lactose d. Sucrose
3. Starch is a polymer of:
a. Amino acids b. Glucose c. Nucleic acids d. Sucrose
4. What kind of polysaccharide cannot be digested by human beings?
a. Cellulose b. Glucose c. Starch d. Sucrose
5. The 3 categories of carbohydrates are:
a. Monosaccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide
b. Glucose, fructose, galactose
c. Starch, cellulose, chitin
d. There are no categories of carbohydrates
6. Which of the following serves as animal starch?
a. Cellulose b. Fructose c. Glucose d. Glycogen
7. What type of carbohydrate is this?

a. Polysaccharide b. Disaccharide c. Monosaccharide d. It isn't a carbohydrate

8. Which of the following is a polysaccharide?
a. Cellulose b. Fructose c. Glucose d. Sucrose
9. Which of the following is false about lipids?
a. They are either strongly hydrophobic or amphipathic c. They are more soluble in water
b. Extraction of lipids from tissues require organic solvents d. They are insoluble in water
10. Which of these is not a lipid?
a. Fats b. Oils c. Proteins d. Waxes
11. The main difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids is _______.
a. the number of carbons. c. the presence of keto groups.
b. the presence of double bonds. d. that one is absent from phospholipids.
12. Which of the following has a double bond their hydrocarbon chains?
a. Trans Fat b. Saturated Fats c. Cholesterol d. Unsaturated Fats
13. Which of the following are not present in membranes?
a. Phospholipids b. Cholesterol c. Fats d. Glycolipids
14. Which are the bases for steroids and sex hormones?
a. Trans Fat b. Saturated Fats c. Cholesterol d. Unsaturated Fats
15. Olive oil is an example of which of the following:
a. Saturated Fats b. Cholesterol c. Steroids d. Unsaturated
CONTENT: STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES:

PROTEINS and NUCLEIC ACIDS

CONTENT STANDARD:

1. Categorize the biological molecules according to their structure and function.

2. Explain the role of each biological molecule in specific metabolic processes.
3. Describe the components of an enzyme.
4. Explain oxidation/reduction reactions.
5. Determine how factors such as pH, temperature, and substrate affect
enzyme activities.

PERFORMANCE STANDARD:

1. Construct the structures of biological molecules from indigenous or

recyclable materials.

PERFORMANCE:

1. Create a 3D model of Nucleic acids and explain its parts and functions by
making a video report.

LEARNING COMPETENCIES:

1. Identify the different structures and functions of proteins and nucleic acids.
2. Describe the primary, secondary and tertiary structure of proteins.
3. Enumerate the essential and non-essential amino acids.
4. Cite examples of food that can be a source of essential amino acids.
5. Explain the different roles of proteins, enzymes and nucleic acids.
6. Give importance to the different biological molecules in living things.

FORMATION STANDARD:

1. The learners shall be able to easily identify the type of biomolecules

according to their structures and functions.

TRANSFER GOAL:

1. The learners will appreciate the roles of the different biomolecules in human
and in other living things.
Key Points

• Proteins are essential for the main physiological processes of life and perform functions in
every system of the human body.
• A protein’s shape determines its function. Protein structure plays a key role in its function; if a
protein loses its shape at any structural level, it may no longer be functional.
• Proteins are composed of amino acid subunits that form polypeptide chains. A chain of amino
acids is a polypeptide.
• The shape of an enzyme’s active site matches the shape of the substrate.
• Peptide bonds form between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of
another through dehydration synthesis.
• Primary structure is the amino acid sequence.
• Secondary structure is local interactions between stretches of a polypeptide chain and
includes α-helix and β-pleated sheet structures.
• Tertiary structure is the overall the three-dimension folding driven largely by interactions
between R groups.
• Quarternary structures is the orientation and arrangement of subunits in a multi-subunit
protein.
• The two main types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA. Both DNA and RNA are made from
nucleotides, each containing a five-carbon sugar backbone, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen
base.
• DNA provides the code for the cell ‘s activities, while RNA converts that code into proteins
to carry out cellular functions.
• The sequence of nitrogen bases (A, T, C, G) in DNA is what forms an organism’s traits.
• The nitrogen bases A and T (or U in RNA) always go together and C and G always go
together, forming the 5′-3′ phosphodiester linkage found in the nucleic acid molecules.
• The structure of DNA is called a double helix, which looks like a twisted staircase.
• The sugar and phosphate make up the backbone, while the nitrogen bases are found in the
center and hold the two strands together.
• Due to the base pairing, the DNA strands are complementary to each other, run in opposite
directions, and are called antiparallel strands.

Key Terms:

• polypeptide: Any polymer of (same or different) amino acids joined via peptide bonds.
• catalyze: To accelerate a process.
• β-pleated sheet: secondary structure of proteins where N-H groups in the backbone of one
fully-extended strand establish hydrogen bonds with C=O groups in the backbone of an
adjacent fully-extended strand
• α-helix: secondary structure of proteins where every backbone N-H creates a hydrogen bond
with the C=O group of the amino acid four residues earlier in the same helix.
• nucleotide: the monomer comprising DNA or RNA molecules; consists of a nitrogenous
heterocyclic base that can be a purine or pyrimidine, a five-carbon pentose sugar, and a
phosphate group
• genome: the cell’s complete genetic information packaged as a double-stranded DNA
molecule
• mutation: any error in base pairing during the replication of DNA.
• sugar-phosphate backbone: The outer support of the ladder, forming strong covalent bonds
between monomers of DNA.
• base pairing: The specific way in which bases of DNA line up and bond to one another; A
always with T and G always with C.
 PROTEINS

Proteins perform many essential physiological functions, including catalyzing biochemical

reactions.

Types and Functions of Proteins

Proteins perform essential functions throughout the systems of the human body. These long
chains of amino acids are critically important for:

• catalyzing chemical reactions

• synthesizing and repairing DNA
• transporting materials across the cell
• receiving and sending chemical signals
• responding to stimuli
• providing structural support

Hormones

Some proteins function as chemical-signaling molecules called hormones. These proteins are
secreted by endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological processes, which
include growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction. For example, insulin is a protein
hormone that helps to regulate blood glucose levels.

Amino Acids

These are considered as the building blocks of proteins. An amino acid contains an amino
group, a carboxyl group, and an R group, and it combines with other amino acids to form polypeptide
chains.

Types of Amino Acids

1. Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body. As a result, they must come from
food. They can be remembered easily with PVT TIMHALL (Private Timhall)
2. Nonessential amino acids mean that our bodies produce an amino acid, even if we do not
get it from the food we eat.
 EXERCISE NO. 1

A. Essential amino acids cannot be produced by our body. Cite examples of foods which can be a
good source of essential amino acids. One food example for each type of essential amino acid.

B. What is the importance of Amino Acids for us humans?

Peptide Bonds

The sequence and the number of amino acids ultimately determine the protein’s shape, size,
and function.

Polypeptide Chains

The resulting chain of amino acids is called a polypeptide chain. Each polypeptide has a free
amino group at one end.
 TYPES OF PROTEIN STRUCTURES

ENZYMES

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions, which otherwise would not take
place. These enzymes are essential for chemical processes like digestion and cellular metabolism.
Without enzymes, most physiological processes would proceed so slowly (or not at all) that life could
not exist.

• Because form determines function, each enzyme is specific to its substrates. The
substrates are the reactants that undergo the chemical reaction catalyzed by the
enzyme.
• The location where substrates bind to or interact with the enzyme is known as the
active site, because that is the site where the chemistry occurs.
• When the substrate binds to its active site at the enzyme, the enzyme may help in its
breakdown, rearrangement, or synthesis. By placing the substrate into a specific shape
and microenvironment in the active site, the enzyme encourages the chemical reaction
to occur.
• There are two basic classes of enzymes:
1. Catabolic enzymes: enzymes that break down their substrate
2. Anabolic enzymes: enzymes that build more complex molecules from their
substrates
Below is an example of an induced fit model of an enzyme.

nzyme changes shape roducts

ubstrate slightly as substrate binds
Active site

ubstrate entering nzyme substrate nzyme products roducts leaving

active site of enzyme complex complex active site of enzyme

Importance of Enzymes

Enzymes are essential for digestion: the process of breaking larger food molecules down into
subunits small enough to diffuse through a cell membrane and to be used by the cell. These enzymes
include:

1. Amylase- which catalyzes the digestion carbohydrates in the mouth and small intestine;
2. Pepsin- which catalyzes the digestion of proteins in the stomach;
3. Lipase- which catalyzes reactions need to emulsify fats in the small intestine; and
4. Trypsin- which catalyzes the further digestion of proteins in the small intestine.

EXERCISE NO. 2

A. We, humans are not able to digest and absorb fiber from plants. What do you think is the
reason behind this? What enzyme is not present in our body which will help in the digestion of
fiber?

B. What would happen if there are no enzymes present in our body?

 NUCLEIC ACIDS

The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
DNA is the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular
mammals.

Nucleotides

DNA and RNA are made up of monomers known as nucleotides. The nucleotides combine
with each other to form a polynucleotide: DNA or RNA. Each nucleotide is made up of three
components:

1. Nitrogenous Bases
• Pyrimidine- C (Cytosine), T (Thymine) and U (Uracil)
• Purine- A (Adenine) and G (Guanine)

➢ In DNA, Adenine is paired to Thymine and Cytosine is paired to Guanine

➢ In RNA, since Thymine is not present, Adenine is paired to Uracil and still the
Cytosine is to Guanine.
• Adenine and Thymine create two hydrogen bonds while Cytosine and Guanine
create three.
2. Five Carbon Sugar
The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose and in RNA it is ribose. The difference
between the sugars is the presence of the hydroxyl group on the second carbon of the
ribose and hydrogen on the second carbon of the deoxyribose. The carbon atoms of the
sugar molecule are numbered as 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, and 5′ (1′ is read as “one prime”).
3. Phosphate Group
The phosphate residue is attached to the hydroxyl group of the 5′ carbon of one sugar
and the hydroxyl group of the 3′ carbon of the sugar of the next nucleotide, which forms a
5′3′ phosphodiester linkage. The phosphodiester linkage is not formed by simple
dehydration reaction like the other linkages connecting monomers in macromolecules: its
formation involves the removal of two phosphate groups. A polynucleotide may have
thousands of such phosphodiester linkages.
The DNA Double Helix

The DNA double helix looks like a twisted staircase, with the sugar and phosphate backbone
surrounding complementary nitrogen bases. This structure was formally proposed by James Watson
and Fancis Crick. Although Rosalind Franklin was the first one who studied the structure, she was not
able to come up with a clear structure since she passed away while the study is still on the process.

EXERCISE NO. 3

PERFORMANCE TASK!

Note: You may do this activity solo, with a pair or triad as long as you will follow the IATF
protocols.

Directions: Construct a DNA structure using recyclable materials. After constructing the DNA
structure, create a video where you or the members of your group are explaining the FUNCTIONS,
COMPONENTS (Includes the pairing of nitrogenous bases, Five carbon sugar and the Phosphate
group) and IMPORTANCE of the DNA.

The video must start by introducing yourselves and followed by the presentation of your output
(DNA Structure), and explanation. It must be sent to me on or before your 2nd quarter examination.
Send the video to my email [email protected]. If you have questions about this activity,
feel free to pm me thru Facebook messenger. God bless you!
 MODULE ASSESSMENT

MULTIPLE CHOICE.

Directions: Read each question carefully. Encircle the letters of your answers.

1. What are enzymes?

a. Proteins that act as biological catalysts
b. Living organisms that act as biological catalysts
c. Complex carbohydrates that act as biological catalysts
d. All of the above
2. The monomers used to synthesize proteins are called:
a. Nucleotides b. amino acids c. fatty acids d. sugars
3. A nucleotide contains:
a. pentose sugar c. a purine or pyrimidine base
b. one or more phosphate group d. all of these
4. Which is a property of protein tertiary structure?
a. Tertiary structures usually contain hydrocarbon R-groups in the interior of the protein
where they can form hydrogen bonds.
b. Tertiary structures usually contain hydroxyl R-groups on the exterior of the protein
where they can favorably interact with water.
c. A protein’s tertiary structure can be predicted if the amino acid sequence is known
by performing the Edman degradation.
d. A protein’s tertiary structure can be maintained by covalent salt bridges and non-
covalent disulfide bridges.
5. The building blocks of nucleic acid are called ___________.
a. Nucleotides b. Nucleosides c. Pyrimidines d. Purines
6. Name the pyrimidine base which is found in RNA but not in DNA?
a. Thymine b. Uracil c. Adenine d. Guanine
7. Which bond is used to stabilize the double helix of DNA?
a. Hydrophobic bond b. Hydrogen bond c. Covalent bond d. Ionic bond

For numbers 8-9, refer to the picture below.

8. What is labelled as Letter D?

a. active site b. enzyme c. substrate d. products
9. What is Labelled as Letter B?
a. active site b. enzyme c. substrate d. products
10. What is Labelled as Letter E?
b. active site b. enzyme c. substrate d. products

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