Lecture-8DC Machines

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y g o l o n h c e T f o e t u t i t s n I a b a b A s i d d A

DC MACHINES
Out lines

 Introduction
 Construction
Principle operation of DC machines
 Armature reaction
 Commutation
 Characteristics of D.C. motors
DC MACHINES

INTRODUCTION

 DC machines are one part of electrical machines used for energy conversions systems.

 they are versatile and extensively used in industry.

 DC machines can work as generators and motors.

I. DC GENERATOR
 Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy

 diesel engine

 Turbine (steam) source of mechanical power (prime mover)

 AC motor

 Means of supplying electrical power to industrial and domestic consumers

 But there is almost no modern use of DC machines as generators

 Presently all the land based electrical power networks are AC systems of generation,

transmission and distribution.


Cont…
DC Generators are still used to produce power in small back up and stand-by
generating plants driven by windmills and mountain streams (mini hydro
electric plants) to provide uninterrupted power supply.

II. DC Motors
Convert electrical energy to mechanical energy

Drive a mechanical load

Obtain increasing applications, especially where large magnitude and


precisely controlled torque is required.

Used in :
 Rolling mills, overhead cranes & for traction purposes, like forklift trucks,
electric vehicles and electric trains.
Cont..

 In portable machine tools supplied from batteries in automotive vehicles as


starter motors, blower motors

 In many control applications as actuators such as speed and position sensing

devices ( taco generators for speed sensing and servomotors for positioning

traction systems).

ADVANTAGES
 It can meet the demand of loads requiring high starting torque
 High accelerating and decelerating torque

 Speed can be controlled in a wide range

 Provides quick reversal


Cont…
Disadvantages
 The complexity of the construction, mainly due to the use of carbon brush
with comutater segments contact.
initial cost, maintenance requirement, power supply

 Arcing and sparking due to comutater segments that reduces the reliability

of the machine.

CONSTRUCTION
The basic parts of DC machines are:
i. Stator (stationary part)
ii. Rotor (Rotating part )
1. shaft
2. end-bearings
3. Commutator
4. brushes
5. armature
6. main-pole
7. main-pole field winding
8. frame
9. end-shield
10. ventilator
11. basement
12. bearings
Parts of a stator
 Stator Frame (name plate, terminal box, basement):
• provides support for the machines, provides for the pole flux & carries half of
it.

 Stator core ( yoke mechanical, support)

 Stator pole

 Field winding : produce stator magnetic flux i.e. main flux

 Commutating poles( inter poles ,improving commutation ), avoids spark


between brush & commutator
 Compensating windings:- in large DC machines only, placed in the slots
connected in series with armature windings, cancels armature reaction and
avoids flux weakening.
 Brushes: attached to stator end-covers and made up of Carbon/graphite, soft
materials, self-lubricating, less spike when contact with commutator, used to
Parts of Rotor
 The rotating part of the machine where electromechanical energy
conversion takes place.
It consists of :
Rotor core

Armature winding:- consists of large no. of coils, each coil having


one or more turns, embedded in rotor slots. Each side of the turn is
called conductor.
Rotor shaft

Bearings to support the rotor shaft

Commutator :- mounted on the shaft, insulated from each other.

• Converts AC to DC (mechanical rectification )

• Connects with external circuit

• Keeps the rotor MMF stationary in space


Principle operation of DC machines
DC machines can work as a motor and a generator
a. Generator action
Requirements are:
 Magnetic flux density(B)

 Conductor with length(l)

 Relative motion between flux density and (B & l)

The energy conversion is based on the principle of dynamically induced


emf, whenever a conductor cuts a magnetic flux, dynamically induced
emf is produced in it by Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
This emf cause a current flow if the conductor is closed.
Generated voltage, Eg = BlVsinø
Elementary generator operation
 The figure below shows the schematic diagram of a simple machine
consists of a coil ABCD rotating in the magnetic field of a strong
permanent magnet or powerful electromagnet. The magnetic lines in the
space between N and S poles are directed from the North Pole N to the
South Pole S. The ends of the coil ABCD are connected to two copper
rings R1 and R2, fixed on the shaft. Two brushes B1 and B2 connected to
the external load circuit make contact with the copper rings R1 and R2
respectively.
 The nature of emf induced in the DC machine is Alternative
Cont…
 there will be an induced voltage in the coil side (conductor) according to
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

e=- ……. Induction by motion.


 The voltage is known as motional emf. The direction of the induced
voltage is determined by Flemings right hand rule. It is called generator
rule which can be stated as follows:

Putting the fore finger, the thumb & the middle fingers of the right hand
mutually perpendicular and if the fore finger show the direction of flux and
the thumb shows the direction of speed then the middle finger will point at
in the direction of the induced voltage. The magnitude of induced voltage is
proportional to B, V & l (e=BlVsinø)
 The nature of emf induced in the DC machine is AC
 To change the AC to DC in DC machines , we must provide many coils
segment in the armature i.e. commutator segment.
The emf equation of a generator is
Eg =
Ø= flux /pole
Z= total number of armature conductor
P= number of poles
a= number of parallel paths in armature
N=armature rotation in revolution, rpm
Eg=emf generated
 The positive brush always collects the positive current, and the negative
brush also collect negative current. As a result of this a pulsating DC
voltage is supplied to the external load.
Example
A lap wound DC shunt generator having 80 slots with 10 conductors per slot
generates at no load an emf of 400 volt, when running at 1000 RPM. At what
speed should be rotated to generate a voltage of 220 volt on open circuit.

Solution : Z = no. of slot x conductor / slot = 80 x 10 =800


given
conductors For lap winding a = p
slot  80 p NZ  NZ
conductor / slot  10 E1  
60a 60
E1  400V E 60 400  60
 1   0.03wb
N1  1000r. p.m NZ 1000  800
E2  220volt let assume that Ø of the system remains constant
requiredN 2  ?
 N2Z
E2 
60
E 60 220v  60
N2  2   550r. p.m
Z 800  0.03
Optional
E1 N1 220 100
  N2   550r. p.m
E2 N 2 400
b. Motor action:
Requirements:
 Magnetic field (flux ),B

 Current i carrying conductor of length, l

 To analyze the motor action consider current carrying conductor in side a


constant magnetic field produced by the main poles.
 The direction of the induced force is determined by the so called Fleming's
left hand rule which can be stated as follows:

Putting the thumb, the fore-finger and the middle finger of our left hand to be
mutually perpendicular and if the fore-finger shows the direction of flux and
the middle finger show the direction of current in the conductor, then the
thumb will point out in the direction of induced force.
 The magnitude of the induced force in the conductor is proportional to
Magnetic flux density, conductor current, effective length of conductor
F= BlI sinø

Where, F= Ampere's force

B= Magnetic flux

I= conductor current

l= Effective length of conductor

ø = position of the coil inside the magnetic field

Torque equation:

T= K ø Ia, K= machine const


Types of DC machines
There are five major types of DC generators, classified according to the manner in

which their field flux is produced( Separately & self Excited)

I. Separately excited generator. In a separately excited generator, the field flux is

derived from a separate power source independent of the generator itself.

2. Shunt generator. In a shunt generator, the field flux is derived by connecting the

field circuit directly across the terminals of the generator.

3. Series generator. In a series generator, the field flux is produced by connecting the

field circuit in series with the armature of the generator.

4. Cumulatively compounded generator. In a cumulatively compounded generator,

both a shunt and a series field are present, and their effects are additive.

5. Differentially compounded generator. In a differentially compounded generator,

both a shunt and a series field are present, but their effects are subtractive .
Equivalent circuit of DC machines

Equivalent circuit is the model of the given machines.


 It is the circuit model of the actual electrical machine

Equivalent circuit of DC generator

It is composed of the field circuit and armature circuit

DC generators are DC machines used as generators.

There is no real difference between a generator and a

motor except for the direction of power flow.


1. Separately Excited Generator

• A generator whose field current is supplied by a separate external dc voltage source.

2. Shunt DC Generator

• supplies its own field current by having its field connected directly across the terminals of the machine. the

armature current of the machine supplies both the field circuit and the load attached to the machine:





3. Series DC generator
• A generator whose field is connected in series with its armature. Since the armature
has a much higher current than a shunt field, the series field in a generator of this sort
will have only a very few turns of wire, and the wire used will be much thicker
than the wire in a shunt field.

Fig The equivalent circuit of a series dc generator.


Equivalent circuit of DC motor
 Separately excited

For the field circuit:


Vt  I f R f

mmf I f N f
f  
Rm Rm

fig(a) The equivalent circuit of a DC motor.

For  EA  I A R
Vt armature circuit
A
N  ZP
EA 
60a
(b)

fig(b) A simplified equivalent circuit eliminating the brush voltage drop and combining Radj, with the field

resistance. IA

Multiplying both sides by


Vt I A  E A I A  I A 2 RA
Vt I A = the gross electrical power input

EA I A = net electrical power input which is converted in to the


gross mechanical power
 Net mechanical power out put = E I - { mechanical loss due to F&
A A
W(shaft power}

 Internal generated voltage:


E A  K a N

 Induced torque:
and
 ind  ka I A Tools for analyzing the behavior

performance of DC motor

Zp
 Ka  = machine constant
60.a

a= 2, for wave winding


a= p, for lap winding
 Self excited motors

Their field and the armature windings are connected, according to the
field arrangement.
There are three types DC motors:
1. Series Wound
2. Shunt Wound
3. Compound Wound : - differentially /cumulatively compounded
• Long shunt
• Short shunt
Series DC motor
• A series motor is one in which the field winding is connected in series with
the armature so that the whole current drawn by the motor passes through
the field winding as well as armature.

Used in applications requiring very high torques

starter motors in a car

elevator motors

 tractor motors
Shunt DC motor
• A shunt wound motor is one in which the field winding is connected
in parallel with armature.
• The current supplied to the motor is divided into two paths, one
through the shunt field winding and second through the armature.
Compound wound motor

• A compound wound motor has both series and shunt windings


• It can be connected as short-shunt or long shunt with armature
winding .
Examples
A 50 hp, 250 V, 1200 rpm dc shunt motor with compensating
winding has an armature resistance (including the brushes,
compensating windings, and interpoles) of 0.06 Ω. Its field
circuit has a total resistance Rdaj+RF of 50Ω, which produces a
no-load speed of 1200 rpm. There are 1200 turns per pole on the
shunt field winding.

(a) Find the speed of this motor when its input current is 100 A.
Solution
the speed of this motor when its input current is 100 A.

• Internal voltage 250V( E A1 ), get motor’s speed ( nm1 =1200rpm)


• Internal voltage =244.3V ( E A2 ), get motor’s speed ( nm 2 )
Induced electromagnetic torque equation of DC machines

The torque on the armature of areal DC machine is equal to the number of z


conductors times the torque on each conductor
Te  Tconductor  Z
Te
= total induced torque
Tconductor = conductor torque
Z = total number of conductors

The conductor torque is given by,

Tconductor  Fconductor  r
Fconductor = conductor force
• r = Armature distance( radius perpendicular)
Cont…

Fconductor   I cond L sin 


Assuming the conductor which lies under pole face,  = 90,

Fconductor   I cond L
Tcond  Fcond r   LI cond r

Te  Z  LI cond r

Ia 
I cond       Ap
a Ap
Ia Ap= surface area of cylinder over the pole face/pole
Te  Z  L r
a
 
   p
Ia 2 rL 2 rL
Te  Zp r  K a I a p
2 a
Example
A 220 V separately excited dc machine has an armature resistance of
0.5 Ω. If the full load armature current is 20 A. find the induced
armature emf when the machine is operated as a:
i. generator ii. motor

Solution
i. Ea= Vt+IaRa ii. Ea = Vt -IaRa
= 220+20x0.5 = 220 -20x 0.5
Ea = 230V Ea= 210V
Armature Reaction

 Armature reaction in DC machines can be defined as the effect of magnetic


field set up by armature current on the distribution of the main field flux
when the machine is loaded.
The armature reaction has two bad effects on the distribution of the main
magnetic field.
 Demagnetizing effect:- it demagnetizes (weakness) the main field flux. As
a result of it, the net flux per pole decreases.

For generator,

 , Ea , Vt , Po   
For motor ,
  Tc  Po ,   
Cont…
 Cross magnetizing effect :- it cross magnetizes (distorts)the distribution
of the main field flux (øf). This leads to the load commutation process.
The commutation process will takes place with sparking ( flash over) the
so called rotational fire.

So the armature reaction strengthens the main field flux at one pole and
weakness on the other pole end.

Methods of minimizing armature reaction effects

Generally there are four possible types of methods. These are,


 High reluctance pole tips

 During the design of machine (calculation )

 Inter poles (commutating poles)

 Compensating winding
1. High reluctance pole tips

The reluctance pole tips can be increased by increasing the length of the air
gap which can be accomplished by using the so called chambered pole tips .
Lpoletips
R poletips   R poletip  a  A.R 
A
2. During the design of the machine

It could be seen in the design stage that the field mmf is sufficiently stronger
than in comparison with the armature mmf at full load condition.
this leads to less armature reaction.
mmf field mmf armature , I f N f I a N a
If Nf
1
Ia Na
3. Inter poles

The effect of armature reaction in the inter polar zone (commutating zone)
can be minimized by using inter poles which are placed exactly mid way
between the main poles.
Inter poles are narrow poles not to affect the main field flux.to avoid
saturation of the inter poles the air gap distance under them is made to be
large.
In order to achieve automatic regulation of the armature reaction in the inter
polar zone, the inter pole winding must be connecting in series with the
armature winding.
4. Compensating winding

The inter pole winding mmf is effective only in the commutating zone
in other words the armature effect in the inter polar zone over come.
This means the flux will be weakening still there. To overcome this
problem compensating winding is applied located in the slots in the
pole faces.
To achieve automatic regulation with loading condition, the
compensating winding also connected in series with armature
winding.
Armature effect in the inter-polar zone improves the commutation
process.
Commutation

When conductors come under the influence of south pole, from the influence
of north pole the direction of current flow in them is reversed. This reversal of
current in a coil will take place when the two comutater segment to which the
coil is connected are being short circuited by brush. The process of reversal
current in a coil is known as commutation. The main cause of sparking in
DC machine is the self induced emf in the coli which under goes in the
process of current reversal.
Methods of Improving Commutation
 The two methods are,
1. Resistance Commutation:- Replacing low resistance copper
brush comparatively high
resistance carbon brush's
2. Emf commutation (reversing emf):-most effective by inter poles.
 Commutation
 Armature Reaction are undesired effects in DC machines
DC Motor Characteristics
The three Important characteristic curves of dc motors are:
1. Torque-Armature Current Characteristic:-
This characteristic curve gives relation between mechanical torque T
and armature current Ia. This is known as electrical characteristic.
2. Speed-Armature Current Characteristic:-
This characteristic curve gives relation between speed N and armature
current Ia
3. Speed-Torque Characteristic:-
This characteristic curve gives relation between speed N and
mechanical torque T. This is also known as mechanical characteristics.
This curve can be derived from the above two curves.
Characteristics of DC Series Motors

a. Magnetic characteristic
In case of DC series motors, the flux varies with the variation in line or
armature current as the field is in series with the armature. The flux
increases following a linear relationship with the increase in load
current. It becomes maximum at saturation point and finally become
constant.
b. Torque-Armature Current Characteristics

Torque equation

Mechanical power developed = EbIa watts

from the two equations,


Cont…
Therefore,

For DC series motor, the flux per pole is directly proportional to Ia hence the torque developed is directly

proportion to the square of the armature current, i.e.

Speed- current and Torque-current characteristics of DC series motors


Speed-Current Characteristic

If the applied voltage remains constant, speed is inversely proportional to flux per
pole. So, if a curve is drawn between reciprocal of flux and current I, the speed
current characteristic is obtained which is a rectangular hyperbola in shape as
Speed-Torque Characteristic

The speed- torque characteristic shows that as the torque increases,


speed decreases. Hence series motors are best suited for the services
where the motor is directly coupled to load such as fans whose speed
falls with the increase in torque. It should be noted that series motor is
a variable speed motor.

Figure Speed-Torque characteristics of dc series motor


Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors
a) Speed-Current Characteristics

a)

From expression of speed N is directly proportional to back emf Eb or (V-IaRa)


and inversely proportional to the flux Ø. Since flux is considered to be constant so
with the increase in load current the speed slightly falls due to increase in voltage
drop in armature IaRa. Since voltage drop in armature at full-load is very small as
compared to applied voltage so drop in speed from no-load to full-load is very
small and for all practical purposes the shunt motor is taken as a constant speed
motor. Therefore, shunt motors being constant speed motors are best suited for
driving of line shafts, machine lathes, milling machines, conveyors, fans and for all
Torque- Current Characteristic

From the expression for the torque of a DC motor, torque is directly


proportional to the product of flux and armature current. Since in case of
dc shunt motors the flux is constant therefore torque increase with the
increase in load current following linear law i.e. torque-armature current
characteristics is a straight line passing through origin.

Speed-Torque Characteristic

The characteristic curve can be drawn from the above two


characteristics.
Characteristics of Compound Would Motor
I. Cumulative compound wound motor
As the load is increased, the flux due to series field winding increase and
causes the torque greater than it would have with shunt field winding alone for
a given machine and for given current. The increase in flux due to series field
winding on account of increase in load cause the speed to fall more rapidly
than it would have done in shunt motor. The cumulative compound motor
develops a high torque with increase of load. It also has a definite speed of no
load, so does not run away when the load is removed .
Cumulative compound wound motors are used in driving machines which
subject to sudden applications of heavy loads, such as occur in rolling mills,
shears or punches.
This type of motor is used also where a large starting torque is regard but
series motor cannot be used conveniently such as in cranes and elevator.
ii. Differential compound wound motor
Since the flux decrease with the increase in load, so the speed remains nearly constant as the

load is increased and in some cases the speed will increase even. The decrease in flux with

the increase in load causes the torque to be less than that of a shunt motor. The characteristics

are similar to those of a shunt motor. Since the shunt motor develops a good torque and

almost constant speed, therefore differential compound motor is seldom used. The

characteristics are shown in Figure 1 and 2.

(1)Speed- current and Torque-current characteristics of dc shunt motor


(2 ) Speed-Torque characteristics of dc shunt motor
Example 4.4
A DC shunt generator supplies a load of 10 kW at 220 V through
feeders of resistance 0.1Ω. The resistance of armature and shunt field
windings is 0.05 Ω and 100 Ω respectively. Calculate,
(i) terminal voltage,
(ii) shunt field current and
(iii) generated emf.
Solution
cont…
Example
A 4-pole dc shunt generator with lap-connected armature supplies a
load of 100 A at 200 V. The armature resistance is 0.1Ω and the shunt
field resistance is 80 Ω. Find
(i) total armature current,
(ii) current per armature path,
(iii) emf generated. Assume a brush contact drop of 2V.
Solution
Exercise

1. A 4 pole 500 V shunt motor takes 7A on no load, the no load


speed of the motor if it takes 122A at full load. Armature
resistance is 0.2Ω, contact drop/brush is 1V, Armature
reaction weakness the field by 40% on full load. Find the full
load speed of the motor.

2. A 250 V dc shunt motor draws 5A from the line on no load


and runs at 1000r.p.m. the armature resistance and shunt
field resistance are 0.2 Ω and 250 Ω respectively. What will
be the speed of the motor when it is loaded and talk current
of 50A. (Armature reaction weakness the field by 3%).

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