Lec-2 History of AI

History of AI
1946: ENIAC heralds the dawn of Computing

1950: Turing asks the question….
I propose to consider the question:
“Can machines think?”

--Alan Turing,
1950
1956: A new field is born
• We propose that a 2 month,

10 man study of artificial
intelligence be carried out
during the summer of 1956
at Dartmouth College in
Hanover, New Hampshire.
• – Dartmouth AI Project
Proposal; J. McCarthy et al.;
Aug. 31, 1955.
1956-1966
• 1950: Turing Test for Machine Intelligence
• 1956: AI born at Dartmouth College Workshop
• 1964: Eliza – the chatbot psychotherapist
• 1966: Shakey – general purpose mobile robot

AI Winters
• 1974 – 1980: Winter #1

– Failure of machine translation
– Negative results in Neural nets
– Poor speech understanding
• 1987 – 1993: Winter #2

– Decline of LISP
– Decline of specialized hardware for expert systems
Lasting effects
AI Winters
• [Economist07] “Artificial
Intelligence is associated
with systems that have all
too often failed to live up
to their promises.”
• [Pittsburgh BT06] “Some
believe the word 'robotics'
actually carries a stigma
that hurts a company's
chances at funding.”
1996: EQP proves that Robbin’s Algebras are
all boolean
----- EQP 0.9, June 1996 -----

The job began on eyas09.mcs.anl.gov, Wed Oct 2 12:25:37 1996
UNIT CONFLICT from 17666 and 2 at 678232.20 seconds.
PROOF
2 (wt=7) [] -(n(x + y) = n(x)).
3 (wt=13) [] n(n(n(x) + y) + n(x + y)) = y.
5 (wt=18) [para(3,3)] n(n(n(x + y) + n(x) + y) + y) = n(x + y).
6 (wt=19) [para(3,3)] n(n(n(n(x) + y) + x + y) + y) = n(n(x) + y).
…….
17666 (wt=33) [para(24,16426),demod([17547])] n(n(n(x) + x)
….
[An Argonne lab program] has come up with a major mathematical

proof that would have been called creative if a human had thought of it.
-New York Times, December, 1996
1997: Deep Blue ends Human Supremacy in Chess
vs.
I could feel human-level intelligence across the room

-Gary Kasparov, World Chess Champion (human)
In a few years, even a single victory
in a long series of games would be the triumph of human genius.
Success Story:
Chess
Does Deep Blue use AI? Saying Deep Blue doesn’t

really think about chess is
like saying an airplane
doesn’t really fly because
it doesn’t flap its wings.
“If it works, its not – Drew McDermott

AI!”
2
3
2005: Cars Drive
Themselves
• Stanley and three

other cars drive
themselves over a
132 mile
mountain road
2005: Cars Drive
Themselves
• Stanley and three other cars drive themselves over
a 132 mile mountain road
2011: IBM’s Watson
And Ken Jennings pledges obeisance to the new Computer Overlords..

2011: IBM’s Watson
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WFR3lOm_xhE
PRESENT
2016: AlphaGo
© https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/alexkantrowitz/were-in-an-artificial-intelligence-hype-cycle
What Changed?
Data
Deep Learning
Neural networks
Object Recognition
40
Artistic
Applications
!
• Doodle to
Painting!
• Style
Transfer
• Image
Colorization
https://arxiv.org/pdf/1603.08511.pdf
https://arxiv.org/pdf/1603.01768.pdf
41
https://github.com/jcjohnson/fast-neural-style
Image 
Caption
Automatic Speech
Recognition
(c) https://medium.com/@gaurav.sharma/voice-is-the-new-o-s-and-the-future-of-search-
commerce-and-payments-64fc8cc848f6
“if it works it is not AI”  “its all AI”
• By 2050, develop a team of fully autonomous humanoid
robots that can win against the human world champion
team in soccer.
49
The Definition of AI
Science of AI
Physics: Where did the physical universe come

from?
And what laws guide its dynamics?
Biology: How did biological life evolve?

And how do living organisms
function?
AI: What is the nature of intelligent

thought?
What is intelligence?
• Dictionary.com: capacity for learning, reasoning,

understanding, and similar forms of mental activity
• Ability to perceive and act in the world

• Reasoning: proving theorems, medical diagnosis
• Planning: take decisions
• Learning and Adaptation: recommend movies,
learn traffic patterns
• Understanding: text, speech, visual scene
Intelligence vs. humans
• Are humans intelligent?

– replicating human behavior early hallmark of
intelligence
• Are humans always intelligent?
• Can non-human behavior be intelligent?

What is artificial intelligence?
human-like vs. rational
“[automation of] activities “The study of mental
that we associate with faculties through the use of
human thinking, activities computational models”
such as decision making, (Charniak & McDertmott
problem solving, learning…” 1985)
(Bellman 1978)
thought
vs. “The study of how to make “The branch of computer
behavior computers do things at science that is concerned
which, at the moment, with the automation of
people are better” (Rich & intelligent behavior” (Luger &
Knight 1991) Stubblefield 1993)
Rational Definition: able to use logical thought rather than emotions to make decisions
What is artificial intelligence?
human-like vs. rational

Systems that think Systems that think
like humans rationally
thought
vs.
Systems that act like Systems that act
behavior
humans rationally
Thinking Humanly
Studying and replicating the way humans think and solve problems in an attempt
to create AI systems that emulate human-like thought processes.
• Perception
• Learning and Memory
• Reasoning and Problem-Solving
• Language and Communication
• Emotional Intelligence
• Social Intelligence
Thinking Humanly
• Cognitive Science
– Very hard to understand how humans think
• Do we want a machine that beats humans in chess or a machine

that thinks like humans while beating humans in chess?
– Deep Blue supposedly DOESN’T think like humans..
• Thinking like humans important in Cognitive Science applications

– Intelligent tutoring
– Expressing emotions in interfaces… HCI
• It was the study of the principles of aerodynamics, not the attempt to make
mechanical birds, that enabled human flight.
Thinking Humanly-Issues
• Complexity of Human Cognition
• Subjectivity and Variability
• Biases and Prejudices
• Ethical Concerns
• Data Limitations
• Computational Resources
• Emotional Understanding
• Validation and Testing
Thinking Rationally: laws of thought
• Aristotle: what are correct arguments/thought processes?

– Logic
• Problems
– Not all intelligent behavior is mediated by logical deliberation
(reflexes)
– What is the purpose of thinking?
Acting Humanly: Turing’s Test
• If the human cannot tell whether the responses from the

other side of a wall are coming from a human or computer,
then the computer is intelligent.
Acting Humanly
• Loebner Prize
– Every year in Boston
– Expertise-dependent tests: limited conversation
• What if people call a human a machine?

– Shakespeare expert
– Make human-like errors
• Problems
– Not reproducible, constructive or mathematically analyzable
Acting rationally
• Rational behavior: doing the right thing

• Need not always be deliberative
– Reflexive
• Aristotle (Nicomachean ethics)
– Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and every
pursuit is thought to aim at some good.
Acting  Thinking?
• Weak AI Hypothesis vs. Strong AI hypothesis

– Weak Hyp: machines could act as if they are intelligent
– Strong Hyp: machines that act intelligent have to think
intelligently too
Rational Agents
• An agent should strive to do the right thing, based on what it can
perceive and the actions it can perform. The right action is the
one that will cause the agent to be most successful
• Performance measure: An objective criterion for success of an

agent's behavior
• E.g., performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner agent could be

amount of dirt cleaned up, amount of time taken, amount of
electricity consumed, amount of noise generated, etc.
Ideal Rational Agents
“For each possible percept sequence, does whatever

action is expected to maximize its performance
measure on the basis of evidence perceived so far and
built-in knowledge.''
• Rationality vs omniscience?
• Acting in order to obtain valuable information
What is artificial intelligence (agent view)
• An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment
through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators
• Human agent:
– eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors
– hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts for actuators
• Robotic agent:
– cameras and laser range finders for sensors
– various motors for actuators
• We will revisit this view in detail later in the course

Examples: Formal Cognitive Tasks
• Games
– Chess
– Checkers
– Othello
• Mathematics
– Logic
– Geometry
– Calculus
– Proving properties of programs
Examples: Expert Tasks
• Engineering
– Design
– Fault Finding
– Manufacturing planning
• Medical
– Diagnosis
– Medical Image Analysis
• Financial
– Stock market predictions
Examples: Perceptual Tasks
• Perception
– Vision
– Speech
• Natural Language
– Understanding
– Generation
– Translation
• Robot Control
What is artificial intelligence (algorithmic
view)
• A large number of problems are NP hard
• AI develops a set of tools, heuristics, …

– to solve such problems in practice
– for naturally occurring instances
• Search
• Game Playing
• Planning
• …
Recurrent Themes
• Weak vs. Knowledge-based Methods
• Weak – general search methods (e.g., A* search)
• primarily for problem solving
• not motivated by achieving human-level performance
• Strong AI -- knowledge intensive (e.g., expert systems)

• more knowledge  less computation
• achieve better performance in specific tasks
• How to combine weak & strong methods seamlessly?

Recurrent Themes
• Logic vs. Probabilistic vs. Neural

– In 1950s, logic dominates
• attempts to extend logic
– 1988 – Bayesian networks
• efficient computational framework
– 2013 – deep neural networks
• powerful representation across modalities

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History of AI

1946: ENIAC heralds the dawn of Computing

I propose to consider the question:

“Can machines think?”

• We propose that a 2 month,

• 1950: Turing Test for Machine Intelligence

• 1956: AI born at Dartmouth College Workshop

• 1964: Eliza – the chatbot psychotherapist

• 1966: Shakey – general purpose mobile robot

• 1974 – 1980: Winter #1

• 1987 – 1993: Winter #2

----- EQP 0.9, June 1996 -----

[An Argonne lab program] has come up with a major mathematical

I could feel human-level intelligence across the room

Does Deep Blue use AI? Saying Deep Blue doesn’t

“If it works, its not – Drew McDermott

• Stanley and three

And Ken Jennings pledges obeisance to the new Computer Overlords..

Physics: Where did the physical universe come

Biology: How did biological life evolve?

AI: What is the nature of intelligent

• Dictionary.com: capacity for learning, reasoning,

• Ability to perceive and act in the world

• Are humans intelligent?

• Are humans always intelligent?

• Can non-human behavior be intelligent?

human-like vs. rational

• Do we want a machine that beats humans in chess or a machine

• Thinking like humans important in Cognitive Science applications

• Aristotle: what are correct arguments/thought processes?

• If the human cannot tell whether the responses from the

• What if people call a human a machine?

• Rational behavior: doing the right thing

• Weak AI Hypothesis vs. Strong AI hypothesis

• Performance measure: An objective criterion for success of an

• E.g., performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner agent could be

“For each possible percept sequence, does whatever

• We will revisit this view in detail later in the course

• AI develops a set of tools, heuristics, …

• Strong AI -- knowledge intensive (e.g., expert systems)

• How to combine weak & strong methods seamlessly?

• Logic vs. Probabilistic vs. Neural

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