PSYCHOLOGICAL

PERSPECTIVES
You can
ALTER
your life by
altering the STATE
OF YOUR MIND
William James
PSYCHOLOGY
the study of

BEHAVIOUR
MENTAL
and
PROCESSES
 PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVES
• Humanistic
• Psychoanalytic
• Psychosocial
• Cognitive
• Moral
• Modern
 HUMANISTIC
PERSPECTIVES
stresses a person’s

CAPACITY
for personal growth,
freedom to choose one’s
own destiny, and positive
human qualities

Abraham Carl
 self is mainly concerned with
SATISFYING its needs

Abraham (April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970)

Abraham
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
(April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970)
Carl
January 9, 1908 – February 4, 1987

Rogers
self emerges through the individual’s experiences with the world

SELF
“I” or “Me” of our existence

• is a whole consisting of:

SELF-PERCEPTIONS (how attractive I
am, how well I get along with others, how good an athlete I am)

VALUES we attach to these perceptions (good/bad,

worthy/unworthy)

Carl January 9, 1908 – February 4, 1987

SELF
SUBSYSTEMS:
SELF-
CONCEPT
aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences
that are perceived in awareness by the
individual

IDEAL
SELF
one’s view of self as one wishes to be

Carl
If the self-concept and ideal self-do not match, tendency is that the self will be MAL-
January 9, 1908 – February 4, 1987

ADJUSTED and will experience INCONGRUENCE.

 3 Methods
HOW TO DEVELOP A POSITIVE-CONCEPT
• UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
accepting, valuing, and being positive toward another person regardless
of the person’s behaviour

• EMPATHY
listening, understanding and being sensitive to others’ feelings
• putting yourself in the shoes of others
• looking at their world from their point of view

• GENUINENESS
being open with our feelings and dropping our pretenses and
facades

Carl
PSYCHOANALYTIC
PERSPECTIVES

Sigmund
 PSYCHOANALYTIC
Sigmund
PERSPECTIVES

May 6, 1856 – September 23, 1939

Freud
• founder of Psychoanalysis
• believes that personality is shaped by early experiences in
life
• developed the Psychosexual Theory of Development
• believed that adult personalities are defined by how we
resolve the contradiction between these early sources of
gratification –Non-resolution would result to FIXATION
which results to ATTACHMENT to an earlier stage
Stages of Psychosexual
Development
STRUCTURAL MODEL: THE PROVINCES OF THE MIND
STRUCTURAL MODEL: THE PROVINCES OF THE MIND
 PSYCHOSOCIAL
PERSPECTIVES

Erik
Erik June 15, 1902 – May 12, 1994

Erikson
• believed that the SELF is
largely SHAPED BY
SOCIETY
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
 PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENTAL DEVELOPMENTAL
SUCCESSFUL DEALING WITH UNSUCCESSFUL DEALING WITH CRISIS
CRISIS PERIOD CRISIS
TRUST VS. MISTRUST Infancy expect those needs to be met in the future develop a sense of mistrust and do not expect their needs to
Birth -1 ½ years old be met in the future.

Autonomy VS. Toddler develop independence develop a sense of self-doubt and shame for failing
Shame and Doubt 1 ½ to 3 years old

Initiative VS. Guilt Preschool Age feel capable and develop a sense of initiative. feel irresponsible, anxious, and develop a sense of guilt
3 to 5 years old

Industry VS. Inferiority Elementary School Age develop a sense of industry, making them feel competent feel inferior when compared to others
5 to 12 years old and improving their self-esteem

Identity VS. Role Confusion Adolescence develop a stable sense of identity feel inferior when compared to others.
13 to early 20s

Intimacy VS. Isolation Early adulthood have a fulfilling relationship founded on will isolate themselves and may experience loneliness, even
20s and 30s psychological intimacy when involved in shallow relationships with others.

Generativity VS. Stagnation Late Adulthood will be productive and creative, leaving a legacy remain stagnated, self-centered, and feeling that they have
60s for the future not made a difference

Ego Integrity VS. Despair Late Adulthood will have a sense of completion and will see feel a sense of having left things too late and see death as
death as simply the last stage of a full life coming.
60s
 COGNITIVE
PERSPECTIVES

Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget
August 6, 1896 – September 16, 1980

children actively construct

knowledge as they explore and
manipulate the world around them

COGNITIVE
PERSPECTIVES
STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 MORAL
PERSPECTIVES

Lawrence
 Lawrence October 25, 1997 – January, 1987

Kohlberg
He developed his theory of moral development by assessing what morality
meant. In his search, he asked children to consider certain moral dilemmas
– situations in which right or wrong actions are not always clear. Kohlberg
did not focus on the answer of the children but he studied their reasoning.

MORAL PERSPECTIVES
“Heinz Heinz
StealsDilemma the

Drug”
“In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of
cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might
save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the
same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive
to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the
drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and
charged $2000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick
woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to
borrow the money, but he could get together only $1000. He
told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to
sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said,
“No, I discovered the drug, and I am going to make money
from it.” Desperate, Heinz broke into the man’s store to
steal the drug for his wife.”
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Behaviour is guided by rewards and punishments. Behaviours are “good” or “bad” depending on their consequences. Child does not understand the rules of society.

STAGE 1 Obedience or Punishment Orientation Obeying the rules is important to avoid punishment.
Equal exchange. If one is good to others, then others will be good
STAGE 2 Self-Interest Orientation
to you.
CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Child begins to grasp social rules and gains a more objective perspective on right and wrong.
There is a sense of what “good boys” and “nice girls” do. Adolescents aim to
STAGE 3 Social Conformity Orientation get the social approval from those closest to them.

Focus is on following rules of society, respecting authority and

STAGE 4 Law and Order Orientation
doing one’s duty.
POST-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
At this level, emphasis is on the personal or idealized principles of a person.

The understanding is that laws, rules, and regulations are created for mutual
benefit of all citizens. People at this stage may sometimes disobey rules if they
STAGE 5 Social Contract Orientation find them inconsistent with their personal values and will also argue for certain
laws to be changed if they are no longer working. People understand and
believe in democracy in action.
At this stage, people have a principled conscience and will to follow universal
ethical principles regardless of what the official laws and rules are. Right and
STAGE 6 Universal Ethics Orientation wrong are not determined by rules and laws, but by individual reflection on
what is proper behaviour.
MODERN PERSPECTIVES
• William James
• Edward
• Daniel
Higgins Ogilvie
William (1842 – 1910)

James
“The Principles of Psychology”
1980

• SELF as the sum

total of all that a
man can call his
in studying the self,
• He proposed that …..

all constituents must be explored

 2 ASPECTS OF THE SELF
“I Self” “ME Self”
reflects what people see or individuals’ REFLECTIONS
perceive themselves doing in the
about themselves
physical world
• e.g., recognizing that one is • e.g. athletic, smart,
walking, eating, writing cooperative

a c t e r i s t i c of t he
e nt t houg ht s char
self-refer
• self-view
s e l f
• self-image
• self-schema
• self-concept
Edward 1946

Higgins
 2 COGNITIVE SELF-DISCREPANCY THEORY

DIMENSIONSSTANDPOINTS OF THE
DOMAINS
• actual self • one’s own standpoint
SELF
• Ideal self • significant others
• ought self

WHEN THE STANDPOINTS OF THE SELF IS COMBINED WITH THE

DOMAINS OF THE SELF, six basic types of representation are formed: actual/own,
actual/other, ideal/own, ideal/other, ought/own, and ought/other.

WHEN THERE IS A DISCREPANCY WITH EACH REPRESENTATION, negative,

emotional and motivational problems occur

Edward
 “ self- discrepancy
theory”

“ our IDEAL SELF is the person we want to

be… our OUGHT SELF is our
understanding of what others want us to
be--- what we ought to be and do… then
there is our ACTUAL SELF… what
happens when our actual self doesn’t
match the ideal self or ought selves?
 “ self- discrepancy
theory”
IDEAL AND OUGHT SELVES
• our “guides”
“standards” that
we use to
organize and
motivate action
 “ self- discrepancy
IDEAL AND OUGHT SELVES theory”

• When our • When our ACTUAL

SELF does not
SELF is not match, our
align with our
OUGHT SELF, we
IDEAL SELF, we
typically feel agitated,
typically become
guilty, distressed and
disappointed,
anxious
sad…
Daniel 1850-1924

Ogilvie
1987 study about the actual self, ideal self and undesired self
FINDINGS:
 discrepancies between the ACTUAL SELF and the
UNDESIRED SELF were strongly associated with

SATISFACTION
 discrepancies between the ACTUAL SELF and
IDEAL SELF were NOT STRONGLY
ASSOCIATED WITH SATISFACTION
 THE UNDESIRED SELF IS MORE
GROUNDED IN REALITY
WHILE THE IS A IDEAL SELF
VERY UNCLEAR CONCEPT BECAUSE
IT IS NOT ROOTED TO ANY
EXPERIENCES.
1987 study about the actual self, ideal self and undesired self
the UNDESIRED SELF might be a
more stable anchor for assessing the real self
because the undesired self is more likely to be
based on lived experiences

there is a STRONGER RELATIONSHIP

between real/undesired discrepancies and
life satisfaction than between real/ideal
discrepancies and life satisfaction

Daniel