Objectives:

# To understand the atomic structures of three types of

materials
# To understand the characteristics of semiconductor material
and formation of crystal
# Electron/hole movement in semiconductor w.r.t. heat
# working of Thermistor and LDR
# Pure(intrinsic) / impure(extrinsic) semiconductor
# Doping (Pentavalent and Trivalent)
# P-type and N-type semiconductor
# Formation of PN-junction (diode)
# Biasing PN-junction (Forward bias / reverse bias)
Insulators

Insulators have tightly bound electrons in their outer shell

These electrons require a very large amount of energy to free
them for conduction
Let’s apply a potential difference across the insulator above…
The force on each electron is not enough to free it from its orbit
and the insulator does not conduct
Insulators are said to have a high resistivity / resistance
Slide 2
Conductors

Conductors have loosely bound electrons in their outer shell

These electrons require a small amount of energy to free them
for conduction
Let’s apply a potential difference across the conductor above…
The force on each electron is enough to free it from its orbit and
it can jump from atom to atom – the conductor conducts
Conductors are said to have a low resistivity / resistance
Slide 3
Semiconductors
Semiconductors have a resistivity/resistance between that
of conductors and insulators

Their electrons are not free to move but a little energy will
free them for conduction

The two most common semiconductors are silicon and

germanium

Slide 4
The Silicon, Si, Atom
Silicon has a valency This picture shows
of 4 i.e. 4 electrons in the shared electrons
its outer shell
Each silicon atom
shares its 4 outer
electrons with 4
neighbouring atoms
These shared electrons
– bonds – are shown as
horizontal and vertical
lines between the
atoms
Slide 5
Silicon – the crystal lattice
If we extend this
arrangement
throughout a piece of
silicon…

We have the crystal

lattice of silicon

This is how silicon

looks when it is cold

It has no free electrons – it cannot conduct electricity – therefore it

behaves like an insulator
Slide 6
Electron Movement in Silicon
However, if we
apply a little heat to
the silicon….

An electron may
gain enough energy
to break free of its
bond…
It is then available
for conduction and is
free to travel
throughout the
material Slide 7
Hole Movement in Silicon
Let’s take a closer
look at what the
electron has left
behind

There is a gap in the

bond – what we call
a hole

Let’s give it a little

more character…

Slide 8
Hole Movement in Silicon
This hole can also
move…

An electron – in a
nearby bond – may
jump into this hole…
Effectively causing
the hole to move…
Like this…

Slide 9
Heating Silicon
We have seen that,
in silicon, heat
releases electrons
from their bonds…

This creates
electron-hole pairs
which are then
available for
conduction

Slide 10
Intrinsic Conduction
Take a piece of
silicon…
And apply a
potential difference
across it…
This sets up an
electric field
throughout the
silicon – seen here as
dashed lines

When heat is applied an electron is

released and…
Slide 11
Intrinsic Conduction
The electron feels a
force and moves in
the electric field

It is attracted to the
positive electrode
and re-emitted by the
negative electrode

Slide 12
Intrinsic Conduction
Now, let’s apply
some more heat…
Another electron
breaks free…
And moves in the
electric field.
We now have a
greater current than
before…
And the silicon has
less resistance…
Slide 13
Intrinsic Conduction
If more heat is
applies the process
continues…

More heat…
More current…
Less resistance…
The silicon is acting
as a thermistor
Its resistance decreases
with temperature
Slide 14
The Thermistor
 The thermistor is a heat sensitive
resistor
 When cold it behaves as an
insulator i.e. it has a very high
resistance
 When heated, electron hole pairs
are released and are then available
for conduction as has been
described – thus its resistance is Thermistor
reduced Symbol
Slide 15
The Thermistor
 Thermistors are used to measure
temperature

 They are used to turn devices on,

or off, as temperature changes

 They are also used in fire-warning

or frost-warning circuits Thermistor
Symbol
Slide 16
The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
 The LDR is very similar to the
thermistor – but uses light energy
instead of heat energy
 When dark its resistance is high
 As light falls on it, the energy
releases electron-hole pairs
 They are then free for conduction
 Thus, its resistance is reduced LDR
Symbol Slide 17
The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
 LDR’s are used as light meters

 LDR’s are also used to control

automatic lighting

 LDR’s are used where light is

needed to control a circuit – e.g.
Light operated burgler alarm LDR
Symbol Slide 18
The Phosphorus Atom
Phosphorus is
number 15 in the
periodic table

It has 15 protons and

15 electrons – 5 of
these electrons are in
its outer shell
Slide 19
Doping – Making n-type Silicon
Relying on heat or
light for conduction
does not make for
reliable electronics

Suppose we remove
a silicon atom from
the crystal lattice…

and replace it with a

phosphorus atom

We now have an electron that is not bonded – it is thus free for

conduction
Slide 20
Doping – Making n-type Silicon
Let’s remove another
silicon atom…
and replace it with a
phosphorus atom
As more electrons
are available for
conduction we have
increased the
conductivity of the
material
Phosphorus is called If we now apply a potential difference
the dopant across the silicon…
Slide 21
Extrinsic Conduction – n-type Silicon
A current will
flow
Note:
The negative
electrons move
towards the
positive
terminal
Slide 22
 From now
N-type Silicon on n-type
will be
shown like
this.

 This type of silicon is called n-type

 This is because the majority charge carriers are
negative electrons
 A small number of minority charge carriers – holes –
will exist due to electrons-hole pairs being created in
the silicon atoms due to heat
 The silicon is still electrically neutral as the number of
protons is equal to the number of electrons
Slide 23
The Boron Atom
Boron is number 5
in the periodic table

It has 5 protons and

5 electrons – 3 of
these electrons are
in its outer shell
Slide 24
Doping – Making p-type Silicon
As before, we
remove a silicon
atom from the crystal
lattice…

This time we replace

it with a boron atom

Notice we have a
hole in a bond – this
hole is thus free for
conduction
Slide 25
Doping – Making p-type Silicon
Let’s remove another
silicon atom…
and replace it with
another boron atom
As more holes are
available for
conduction we have
increased the
conductivity of the
material
Boron is the dopant If we now apply a potential difference
in this case across the silicon…
Slide 26
Extrinsic Conduction – p-type silicon
A current will
flow – this time
carried by
positive holes
Note:
The positive
holes move
towards the
negative terminal
Slide 27
 From now
P-type Silicon on p-type
will be
shown like
this.

 This type of silicon is called p-type

 This is because the majority charge carriers are positive
holes
 A small number of minority charge carriers – electrons –
will exist due to electrons-hole pairs being created in the
silicon atoms due to heat
 The silicon is still electrically neutral as the number of
protons is equal to the number of electrons
Slide 28
The p-n Junction
Suppose we join a piece of p-type silicon to a piece
of n-type silicon

We get what is called a p-n junction

Remember – both pieces are electrically neutral
Slide 29
The p-n Junction
When initially joined
electrons from the
n-type migrate into the
p-type – less electron
density there
When an electron
fills a hole – both the
electron and hole
disappear as the gap
in the bond is filled
This leaves a region with no free charge carriers – the depletion
layer – this layer acts as an insulator
Slide 30
The p-n Junction 0.6 V

As the p-type has

gained electrons – it
is left with an overall
negative charge…

As the n-type has

lost electrons – it is
left with an overall
positive charge…

Therefore there is a voltage across the junction – the junction

voltage – for silicon this is approximately 0.6 V
Slide 31
The Reverse Biased P-N Junction
Take a p-n junction
Apply a voltage
across it with the
p-type negative
n-type positive
Close the switch
The voltage sets
up an electric
field throughout
the junction The junction is said to be reverse – biased

Slide 32
The Reverse Biased P-N Junction
Negative electrons
in the n-type feel
an attractive force
which pulls them
away from the
depletion layer
Positive holes in
the p-type also
experience an
attractive force
which pulls them
Thus, the depletion layer ( INSULATOR ) is
away from the
widened and no current flows through the
depletion layer
p-n junction Slide 33
The Forward Biased P-N Junction
Take a p-n junction
Apply a voltage
across it with the
p-type postitive
n-type negative
Close the switch
The voltage sets
up an electric
field throughout The junction is said to be
the junction forward – biased
Slide 34
The Forward Biased P-N Junction
Negative electrons
in the n-type feel a
repulsive force
which pushes
them into the
depletion layer
Positive holes in
the p-type also
experience a
repulsive force
which pushes them Therefore, the depletion layer is eliminated
into the depletion and a current flows through the p-n junction
layer Slide 35
The Forward Biased P-N Junction
At the junction
electrons fill holes
Both disappear
as they are no
longer free for
conduction
They are
replenished by the
external cell and
current flows
This continues as long as the external voltage
is greater than the junction voltage i.e. 0.6 V
Slide 36
The Forward Biased P-N Junction
If we apply a
higher voltage…
The electrons feel
a greater force
and move faster

The current will

be greater and
will look like
this….
The arrow shows the
The p-n junction is called a DIODE direction in which it
and is represented by the symbol… conducts current
Slide 37
The Semiconductor Diode
 The semiconductor diode is a p-n
junction
 In reverse bias it does not conduct

 In forward bias it conducts as long

as the external voltage is greater
than the junction voltage
 A diode should always have a
protective resistor in series as it
can be damaged by a large current
Slide 38
The Semiconductor Diode
 The silver line drawn on one side of the
diode represents the line in its symbol
 This side should be connected to the
negative terminal for the diode to be
forward biased
 Diodes are used to change alternating
current to direct current
 Diodes are also used to prevent damage in
a circuit by connecting a battery or power
supply the wrong way around
Slide 39
The Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 Some diodes emit light as they conduct
 These are called LED’s and come in various colours
 LED’s have one leg longer than the other
 The longer leg should be connected to the positive terminal for the
LED to be forward biased
 LED’s are often used as power indicators on radios, TV’s and other
electronic devices

Symbol
Slide 40
The (V-I) Characteristic Curve of a Diode
 Diodes do not obey Ohm’s Law
 A graph of CURRENT vs
VOLTAGE for a diode will not
be a straight line through the
origin.
 The curve will look like this one
 Note how the current increases
dramatically once the voltage
reaches a value of 0.6 V approx.
i.e. the junction voltage.
 This curve is known as the (I-V)
characteristic curve of the diode
Slide 41
Thank You
Q&A
Courttesy © Declan O’Keeffe Slide 42