IDENTIFY PARASITE AND BACTERIA CELL IN THE URINE

A PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED BY

22601397 BHARATH JEGA JEEVA RAM P

22601414 SAMYNATHAN V

22601411 SURENDAR SINGH V

22690809 AKILAN R

22690817 GNANAPRAKASH P

22690848 SURYA M

GUIDE BY
Ms. R.SABARINATHAN B.E.,

in the fulfillment for the award award of

DIPLOMA
in
MEDICAL LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

901 – CHERAN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, SPB COLONY,

PALLIPALAYAM

DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, CHENNAI

APRIL 2024
IDENTIFY PARASITE AND BACTERIA CELL IN THE URINE

A PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED BY

22601397 BHARATH JEGA JEEVA RAM P

22601414 SAMYNATHAN V

22601411 SURENDAR SINGH V

22690809 AKILAN R

22690817 GNANAPRAKASH P

22690848 SURYA M

GUIDE BY
Ms.R.SABARINATHAN B.E.,

in the fulfillment for the award award of

DIPLOMA
in
MEDICAL LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

901 – CHERAN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, SPB COLONY,

PALLIPALAYAM
DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, CHENNAI
APRIL 2024
 DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

901 – CHERAN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is certify that the project is bonafied record done by STUDENTS of

final year diploma in Medical Laboratory Technology during the academic year
2023-2024

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT PROJECT GUIDE
Mr.S.RAFFI, B.E., Mr.R.SABARINATHAN B.E.,
Head of the Department, Lecturer,
Department of MLT, Department of MLT,
Cheran Polytechnic College, Cheran Polytechnic College
Pallipalayam, Pallipalayam

SUBMITTED FOR THE BOARD PRACTICAL EXAMINATION PROJECT

VIVA-VOCE HELD ON ____________.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINAR

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to convey my heartful thanks to our esteemed and respected

Chairman Mr.A.ANBALAGAN who always blessed us to give the best.

I heartily express my profound gratitude to our Honorable Secretary

Tmt.S.VIJAYA ANBALAGAN for their constant support.

I heartily express my sincere thanks to our Respected Principal,

Mr..M.VIJAYAKUMAR M.E.,MISTE for forwarding us to do our project and
offering adequate duration in completing our project.

I am grateful to Mr.RAFFI.S B.E., Head of the Department, and

Department of Medical Laboratory Technology for his anchoring support in
doing this project.

I express my sincere thanks to our supervisor Mr.R.SABARINATHAN

B.E., Lecturer, Department of Medical Electronics for his excellent guidance,
who was always with us to carry out this project successfully.

I offer my sincere thanks to all our esteemed teaching, non-teaching staff

members of Medical Electronics Department, my dear parents and friends who
have contributed their continuous support by their valuable suggestions and
encouragement.
 CHAPTER 1
ABSTRACT
Measuring body temperature is considerably important to physiological studies as well
as clinical investigations. In recent years, numerous observations have been reported and
various methods of measurement have been employed. The present paper introduces a novel
wearable sensor in intelligent clothing for human body temperature measurement. The
objective is the integration of optical fiber Bragg grating (FBG)-based sensors into functional
textiles to extend the capabilities of wearable solutions for body temperature monitoring. In
addition, the temperature sensitivity is 150 pm/°C, which is almost 15 times higher than that of
a bare FBG.
This study combines large and small pipes during fabrication to implant FBG sensors
into the fabric. The law of energy conservation of the human body is considered in determining
heat transfer between the body and its clothing. The mathematical model of heat transmission
between the body and clothed FBG sensors is studied, and the steady-state thermal analysis is
presented. The simulation results show the capability of the material to correct the actual body
temperature.
Based on the skin temperature obtained by the weighted average method, this paper
presents the five points weighted coefficients model using both sides of the chest, armpits, and
the upper back for the intelligent clothing. The weighted coefficients of 0.0826 for the left
chest, 0.3706 for the left armpit, 0.3706 for the right armpit, 0.0936 for the upper back, and
0.0826 for the right chest were obtained using Cramer’s Rule. Using the weighting coefficient,
the deviation of the experimental result was ± 0.18°C, which favors the use for clinical armpit
temperature monitoring.
Moreover, in special cases when several FBG sensors are broken, the weighted
coefficients of the other sensors could be changed to obtain accurate body temperature.
 CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION
A fiber Bragg grating (FBG) is a type of distributed Bragg reflector constructed in a
short segment of optical fiber that reflects particular wavelengths of light and transmits all the
others. This reflection is achieved by adding a periodic variation to the refractive index of the
fiber core, which generates a wavelength-specific dielectric mirror.
Therefore, the FBG can be used as an inline optical filter to block certain wavelengths,
or as a wavelength-specific reflector [1]. Recently, fiber Bragg gating sensors have
demonstrated great advantage over electronic sensors for applications in intelligent structures,
civil engineering, harsh environments, built health monitoring system and so on [2–4].
Intelligent clothing is the integration and intersection of electronic information,
material, textile, and other related subjects. Such clothing is sensitive and can respond to
environmental conditions and other factors; not only can it sense changes of both the
environment outside and conditions inside the human body, it can also respond to these changes
through a feedback mechanism in a timely manner.
The features of intelligent clothing are portable, easy monitoring in real-time, and so
on. Sensing, feedback, and reaction are its three essential factors [5,6]. A lot of achievements
have been obtained in the research of intelligent clothing. In [7], a new wireless communication
infrastructure to enable networking and sensing on clothing is proposed, also the architecture
and technology of the fabric area network (FAN) is described.
This technology proved to be emission-safe, low-cost and easy to maintain. In [8],
garment design method is proposed for a specific task based on combinations of garment design
and knitting technology to provide the required confining pressure, electrical and mechanical
properties for the intelligent clothing. Experiments revealed that problems faced in intelligent
clothing design, such as confining pressure, flexible electronic circuitry, and so on, could be
successfully solved by the use of this method and can be applied in the future design of
intelligent clothing. In [9], devices are defined and positioned solely by a weaving pattern,
meaning that simple circuits could potentially be directly built into fabric during manufacturing
which offers a novel approach for providing information routing within fabric and a major
hurdle in electronic textile development.
 Perception, feedback and reaction are three elements of intelligent clothing. But in fact
the conductive fiber and the cotton fiber blend together, which leads to the realization of
receiving data from the embedded sensor. And the data can be transformed to a special receiver
with the size of a credit card. This receiver can be put at the waist, can store information, and
then indicate it on the mobile phone, family personal computer or wrist monitors, in order to
monitor the important life characteristics of certain person, issuing a warning signal in time.
According to the example mentioned above, the conductive fiber and the cotton fiber
blend together, the receiver of the intelligent clothing just has the size of a credit card, can be
put at the waist, being used to store, monitor and send out signal. So the sensing of intelligent
clothing has advantages such as convenience, accuracy, and feasibility. Being small, portable,
compatible to yarn, and easy to weave into textiles, FBG sensors have become the most
promising material of sensing element in forming intelligent clothing.
Numerous diseases have fever as one of the early symptoms. Fever can be classified
into two kinds. One is non-infectious fever, which occurs in cases such as in immunological
diseases, tumors, and metabolic diseases.
Among them, tumors are the greatest killers of human beings. The other kind is
infectious fever, such as the H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza and Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndromes (SARS), both of which have caused global panic in recent years. Thus,
measurement of human body temperature is significant in the early detection of diseases, timely
diagnosis, and treatment.
This paper aims to investigate key problems of intelligent clothing for temperature
measurement. Mainly, the focus is on the theories and methods of measuring human body
temperature through distributed optical FBG in intelligent clothing.
Then, a mathematical model of human body temperature is built, and ways to weave
optical FBG sensors into the fabric are determined. Intelligent clothing can monitor, process,
store, and provide data on human body temperature in real-time. In addition, among other
benefits, such clothing is portable, affordable, and accurate in measurement. Moreover,
continuous data of the patient’s body temperature changes can be provided for doctors and
nurses, thereby allowing for correlation analysis by combining these data with other physical
parameters.
Thus, intelligent clothing can contribute to the timely detection of infection, tumors,
and other diseases, such as SARS and the Avian Influenza. Furthermore, safe and accurate tele-
monitoring of patients can be achieved, helping ensure that patients are treated in a timely
manner [10–12] This achievement is significant and possesses great application value in
promoting people’s health, especially that of old people and children who lack the ability of
language expression.

CHAPTER 2
FBG fabrication and embedment
2.1 Development History of Smart Clothing
The initial development phase of smart clothing mainly involved combining electronic
devices with clothing, with portability and usage being the main objectives. In this phase,
popular electronic products were integrated with clothing to endow it with new functions.
The 2000 Philips/LevisICD+ series was the world’s first wearable electronic smart
clothing [10]; it was also commercially available for consumers. A novel product has been
developed by Philips Design, Philips Research, and Levi’s.
The 21st-century smart clothing integrates entertainment (such as music) and
communication functions [2], with all wires hidden inside the coat. This new series of smart
clothing provides a clean and tidy appearance such that users are not hindered by wires while
enjoying the convenience of the electronic functions [11].
In smart clothing designed to measure physiological data, wearable sensors are
integrated into the textiles, and physiological signals are transmitted through Bluetooth to
mobile phones or computers without affecting the user’s comfort. The wearable detection
systems used in earlier versions of smart clothing were mainly used to monitor, record, and
transmit the physiological parameters of astronauts in space to control stations on Earth.
At the 2018 CES Consumer Electronic Fair, smart clothing manufacturer Myant and
wireless charger developer Energous collaborated to launch SKIIN innerwear. The innerwear
has six sensors integrated into the clothing to detect heart rate (HR), body temperature (BT),
psychological stress, movement, body fat percentage, and water content. These physiological
parameters are transmitted to a mobile phone. A unique characteristic of this clothing is that it
uses wireless charging [2].
The future of smart clothing may include applications ranging from entertainment and
personalized fitness to value-added healthcare. However, a major challenge is to meet
consumer expectations for smart clothing, which include convenience, comfort, and softness
while providing integrated high-technology function [12].
 Therefore, this study examined the feasibility of smart clothing in healthcare
monitoring functions as well as the user comfort of smart clothing in daily living.

2.2. Conductive Silver Fibers

Conductive silver fibers are specialized products produced by permanently binding a
layer of pure silver on fiber surfaces. This layered structure not only enables the fiber to retain
its original textile characteristics but also endows it with electrical conductivity due to the silver
coating [13].
Silver fiber synthesis uses nanosilver wires [14,15,16] as the electrically conductive
carrier. Sputtering is used to enable the clothes to conduct electricity. This process can be used
to produce or control electricity, light, heat, and other physical qualities. Silver ion fibers also
possess antibacterial activity, which can help avoid secondary infections. The compound
spinning method is used to balance relaxation and adhesion forces between the silver fibers
and polymers, allowing effective antibacterial activity.
This process is applied to highly elastic conductive fibers that are lightweight and
comfortable enough to allow free body movement. The smart clothing conductive fabric is a
composite fiber that must conform to ANSI/AAMI EC-12 regulations (i.e., impedance <2
kiloohms) [13]. The most commonly used synthetic fibers are polyester and nylon; as these are
soft and elastic, knitting is an ideal method for the development of wearable clothing. Single
jersey and interlock knitted fabrics as well as blended fabrics, including silver fiber, polyester,
spandex, and nylon, are used. The elastic fibers in these materials can increase the stability of
sensors when worn on the body.
Smart clothing is designed to be comfortable, breathable, and moisture-permeable, and
it can be worn with other clothes. The tight-fitting nature of this clothing is used to fix the
electrodes in place, and the use of silver fiber fabrics as ECG electrodes decreases the chances
of skin damage [17,18].
Smart clothing ensures that the user is not affected by monitoring during data
acquisition, thus making it suitable for long-term cardiac monitoring. Smart clothing is a
suitable alternative to traditional disposable ECG electrodes.
Therefore, blending different ratios of silver fibers can translate into considerations for
data signal, costs, and wearability. Furthermore, silver fiber possesses antibacterial activity that
can prevent secondary infection, which can be critical in healthcare and long-term care.
2.3. Comfort in Smart Clothing
Comfort is a neutral characteristic of clothing, which means that wearing clothes can
protect the user without any physical and mental effects, i.e., it can rapidly promote a sensation
of warmth. Comfort is a state of not feeling excessively cold or warm. In other words, there
should be a supply–demand balance in terms of the heat generated and lost by the body to
maintain the ideal temperature.
User comfort specifically includes the following domains: (1) thermal comfort, (2)
contact comfort, (3) pressure comfort, and (4) clothing aesthetics. In the human body–clothing–
environment system [19], humans are homoiotherms and will employ various means to
dissipate heat and moisture to maintain a stable temperature. Therefore, clothes play a critical
role in temperature regulation.
The comfort of the fabric can be divided into two components. The first is physiological
comfort, which affects the surface temperature, amount of sweat and heat dissipation, and other
physiological responses associated with heat generation and dissipation. The second
component is psychological comfort, i.e., recollection of past or preconceived experiences; this
component is a subjective feeling that is assessed and compared using questionnaire surveys.
Subjective evaluations are based on the use of the senses (vision, touch, thermesthesia, and
humid heat sensation) to evaluate and describe physiological and psychological comfort
[20,21].
Therefore, verbal responses are used to understand subjective feelings; this method can
effectively reflect the actual feelings of the users. In general, clothing comfort can be tested in
a temperature- and humidity-controlled room. Different levels of activity and changes in the
testing environment can be used to control these factors. Clothing parameters based on
questionnaires can be effectively used to measure contact comfort and understand subjective
factors, such as material, touch, tight-fitting lines, hygroscopicity, breathability, and mobility.
In addition to contact comfort, the users’ feelings regarding the clothes can also be used to
assess the comfort in varying humidities and temperatures.

2.4 Polymer package for FBG sensors

A bare FBG has very low temperature sensitivity of 10 pm/°C at about 1,550 nm in
wavelength. Thus, improving the temperature sensitivity of FBG will contribute enhanced
precision. A novel FBG temperature sensor based on an FBG partly embedded in a polymer-
filled strip is designed in this paper.
 Figure 1 illustrates the configuration of the proposed temperature sensor. All the FBGs
are embedded in a rectangle package with length, width, and thickness of 25, 8, and 3 mm,
respectively. According to Fig. 1, inject polymer which is mixed evenly into two long strip
model with length, after long time curing, two long strip polymer received. Grind a groove in
the center of the polymer with fine sandpaper, polish smooth, and then put the bare FBG in the
groove.
Finally, fix and paste on the both side of the FBG until the structure is cured and taken
shape. During the packaging process, the FBG is imposed a certain degree of prestressing to
avoid the nonlinear and the distortion of the reflection wavelength shift date, which is caused
by the chirp of the FBG. Fix FBG at both side of the substrate to make sure that the FBG located
in the center of the substrate material and parallel to the base material, As a result, not only the
good linear relationship between the FBG wavelength and the temperature is ensured, but also
the stability of the sensor structure.
In order to eliminate the effect of unstable force field on FBG, we add certain pretension
on fiber Bragg grating in the process of encapsulation. In this way, the FBG is in a tension state
and therefore a stable space position and force relation is always existed between the FBG and
the substrate. So when we did the temperature experiment, the temperature character of FBG
is stable.

Fig. 1 Sketch of polymer package for FBG

The polymer used is the copolymerization of unsaturated polyester resin mixtures
containing 5.0 wt% Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide (MEKP) and 2.0 wt% cobalt naphthenate
at 25 °C. Unsaturated polyester resins are produced by the polycondensation of saturated and
unsaturated dicarboxylic acids with glycols.
Such resins form highly durable structures and coatings when cross-linked with a
vinylic reactive monomer, most commonly styrene. Their properties depend on the types of
acids and glycols used and their relative proportions. MEKP is highly explosive, similar to
acetone organic peroxide, but is slightly less sensitive to shock and temperature as well as more
stable in storage [13] Cobalt naphthenate is a mixture of the cobalt derivatives of naphthenic
acids; it is widely employed as catalyst because of its solubility in nonpolar substrates.
Naphthenates, which are mixtures, help confer high solubility.
The second benefit of these species is their low cost. A well-defined compound that
exhibits many of the properties of cobalt naphthenate is the cobalt complex of 2-ethylhexanoic
acid. According to technical literature, naphthenates are described as salts, but they are
probably also non-ionic coordination complexes with structures similar to that of basic zinc
acetate.
We use the method of curve (in Fig. 2 ) fitting calculated the temperature sensitivity of
the FBG is 150pm/°C. As shown in 2, with the polymer, the FBG’s temperature sensitivity is
150 pm/°C, which is almost 15 times higher than that of a bare FBG. Figure 3 shows the
spectrum of polymer-packaged FBG sensors.

Fig. 2 Wavelength increment and temperature for polymer-packaged FBG sensors and bare
FBG sensors.

Fig. 3 Spectrum of polymer-packaged FBG sensors.

2.5 Embedment of FBG sensors into fabric

 FBG sensors can be embedded into textile fabrics. The textile substrates could be
woven, non-woven, or knitted fabrics. In incorporating the optical fiber sensors, non-woven
fabrics have the advantage of a very large surface area because of the presence of small-sized
fibers.
Moreover, the levels of mechanical stresses involved in the incorporation of optical
fiber sensors in non-woven fabrics are much lower than those in the case of woven or knitted
fabrics, thereby leading to less fiber breakages, especially when silica optical fibers are used.
The FBG sensors are embedded into the fabric by combining large and small pipes
together in fabrication, while keeping optical fiber and sensors complete, unbent, and
harmonious with the activities of fabric warp and filling.
During the manufacturing process, the clothing is divided into several blocks to weave
and implant the sensors in the corresponding place, to keep pipes in their exact places, and to
prevent them from being destroyed. After the sensors are implanted, the chain draft of weaving
is changed so that the sensors will remain in place within the pipes and not move around. When
all of the weaving is completed, the blocks are sewn together.
By using large and small pipes together in the fabrication method, we divide fabric into
three parts. The first part is manufactured by plain weave. The second part is manufactured by
tubular tissues and plain weave, as a part to implement large pipe. The third part uses the
structure of small pipes covered by large pipes.
When we manufacture the third part, we keep the pipe orifice open to form a cylindrical
hollow bag, implant FBG sensors into it, and change the chain draft. Then we can continue to
fabricate the second part and the first part to finish encapsulating FBG sensors into fabric.
The completed fabric is shown in Fig. 4 , which adopts the implanting method of
covering small pipe with large one to form a cylindrical hollow bag, and fulfill the consistency
between activities of warp weave and filling weave without influencing the outward
appearance of the fabric.

Fig. 4 Picture of embedment of FBG sensors into fabric, (a) Front side of the fabric, (b) Back
side of fabric.
 For the experiment on the FBG temperature measurement, a light path and
demodulation circuit is built based on the Fabry-Perot (F-P) tunable filter. The FFP –TF2 filters
we used are come from American Micron Optics Ics. The tuning range is 1520-1570 nm, the
tuning speed is 5 Hz, and the tuning voltage is 0-10V, which is ideal for low cost, high volume
applications and low power requirements.
As Fig. 5 shows, under the control of the output drive voltage and the tunable narrow-
band light source, which is composed of a broadband light source SLED, isolators, and F-P
filters in optical path demodulator, different center wavelengths of the narrow-band light are
exported; these enter into the sensitive passage through a coupler.
After passing through the photoelectric detector, the reflected light of the FBG sensors,
which are implanted in the intelligent clothing, turns off the electrical signals, commencing the
analysis of the wavelength after sampling in the signal processing.

Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of the demodulation system for body temperature measurement in
intelligent clothing.
The fiber Bragg grating adopted by this paper is prepared by the phase-mask method,
which is one kind of UV-written fiber Bragg grating. The rate of its peak reflectivity is close
to 100%. Its side mode suppression ratio is about 29dB.
 The range of wavelength is 0.4 nm when the bandwidth is 3 dB. The range of
wavelength is 0.8 nm when the bandwidth is 30 dB. As shown in Fig. 6 , the central wavelength
of the five FBGs are respectively 1532.6, 1533.4, 1540.4, 1542.1, and 1548.4 nm. The FBGs’
temperature sensitivity are 148.2, 141.5, 146.2, 146.6, and 150.2 pm/°C.

Fig. 6 Spectrum of five series polymer-packaged FBG sensors.

This study uses C8051F060 and LPC2106 to collect and process wavelength signals.
C8051F060, which is a microcontroller for data acquisition, includes several key enhancements
to the CIP-51 core and its peripherals to improve overall performance and the ease of use in
end applications; also included are mixed-signal system-on-a-chip MCUs with 59 digital I/O
pins, and two integrated 16-bit 1 Msps ADCs. LPC2106 consists of an ARM7TDMI-S CPU
with emulation support, the ARM7 local bus for interface to on-chip memory controllers, the
AMBA advanced high-performance bus for interface to the interruption controller, and the
VLSI peripheral bus for connection to on-chip peripheral functions.
LPC2106 configures the ARM7TDMI-S processor in little-endian byte order.
Considering A/D output voltage signal in C8051F060 as the control of the F-P filter drive
voltage through photoelectric conversion, the reflected light of FBG is amplified and filtered
by the signal conditioning circuit. The output of the signal conditioning circuit is then sampled
and stored with the help of C8051F060, followed by the pre-processing of the sampled data
before being sent to LPC2106 through the serial port to achieve the core demodulation
algorithm, which provides the results of the temperature algorithm.
 CHEPTER 3
HEAT TRANSFER MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF FBG SENSORS
The human body is a heating element. Heat comes from metabolism, and a part of it
reaches the surface of human skin by blood circulation, and then spreads to the external
environment through microclimate and clothing. When the external temperature is lower than
human body temperature, a temperature gradient will occur between the human skin and
environment.
This leads to heat transmission toward the clothing surface through microclimate and
clothing, and then heat spreads to the environment in the form of conduction, convection, and
radiation [14]. As FBG sensors, studied and implanted into intelligent clothing, cannot by itself
cling to the human body, the physical model of this heat transmission between the human body
and FBG sensors is actually the model of body, air layer, and clothing when detecting body
temperature, as shown in Fig. 7 .

Fig. 7 Heat transmission model between body and clothed FBG sensors.
 The constant motion of people, who are in clothing, keep heat transmission in a
dynamically changing process. The air under the clothing cannot be completely static. Thus,
while the temperature difference between various fabrics results in heat transmission, the
movement of air molecules also leads to natural convection.
For this reason, this study has chosen tight underclothes during the design of intelligent
clothing; the space for air is small enough to stop convection from forming, allowing the study
of heat transmission.
The temperature field among the human body, air layer, and clothing changes all the
time, making heat transmission a dynamic process. In other words, heat transmission is
unstable. Armpit temperature is clinically regarded as body temperature, and the method of its
measurement is to dry perspiration under the armpit, place the mercury side of a thermometer
deep in the armpit, and bend the patient’s arm to keep the thermometer in place at about 5 cm
higher than the breast.
The time spent measuring the temperature is regarded as the time of building a heat
balance between the body surface and the thermometer. Afterward, for example, in 3 min, the
heat transmission can then be regarded as steady-state heat transmission, which can then be
analyzed and examined accordingly.
This paper establishes finite element models of heat transmission among the human
body, air layer, and clothing. A cylindrical air element is used with l length l, r radius, and dr
thickness from microclimate area. The equivalent heat conductivity is λ, specific heat capacity
is c, density is ρ. The λ, c, and ρ are all functions of temperature (T), whereas T is the function
of τ, indicating time and r, namely, λ(r, τ), c(r, τ), ρ(r, τ). Figure 8 shows the cylindrical element.

Fig. 8 Strip-shaped micro-cell.

According to the law of energy conservation, for elements during any interval dτ, the heat,
including that flowing into the element and that produced by the element itself, is equal to the
heat consisting of the heat flowing out of the element and the heat increasing in the element’s
internal energy. Heat transmission inside the intelligent clothing is only the transmission of
heat, and thus, no origins of heat are inside the element. The heat balance is shown as Eq. (1):

𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑞𝑑.

where qin is the heat flowing into the element, qout is heat flowing out, and qd is the heat
increasing the element’s internal energy.
According to Fourier’s law [3,5],
qin = −𝜆 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 (∂𝑡 / ∂𝑟) 𝑑𝜏.

∂t ∂t ∂2t ∂ ∂t
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = [−𝜆2𝜋𝑟∂r ] – [2𝜋𝜆∂r𝑑𝑟] – [2𝜋𝜆𝑟∂r2 𝑑𝑟 ] –[ ∂r [𝜆(𝑟,𝜏)]2𝜋𝑟 ∂r 𝑑𝑟].

∂t
𝑞𝑑 =2𝜋𝑟𝑙𝑐(𝑟,𝜏)𝜌(𝑟,𝜏) 𝑑𝜏.
∂r

Substituting Eqs. (2), (3), and (4) into Eq. (1) yields a mathematical model of heat
transmission among the human body, air layer, and clothing as Eq. (5):

∂ ∂t ∂t ∂2t ∂t
[𝜆(𝑟,𝜏)]𝑟∂r +𝜆(𝑟,𝜏) ∂r +𝜆(𝑟,𝜏)𝑟∂r2 =𝑐(𝑟,𝜏)𝜌(𝑟,𝜏)𝑟∂r
∂r

Solving the heat transfer problem, in essence, is solving the differential equations of
heat transfer. Additional conditions, called definite conditions, for characterizing the problem
are required to obtain the temperature and pressure distribution for the specific heat transfer.
For the unstable state heat transfer process, two aspects of definite conditions are required,
namely, the initial and boundary conditions of the temperature and pressure distribution.
The heat transfer differential equations and definite conditions constitute the complete
mathematical description of the heat transfer problem.
The temperature and pressure distribution in clothing microclimate are initially known,
which are the external environment temperature Ta and pressure Pa. Thus, the initial condition
is

𝑇(𝑟,0) = 𝑇𝑎 ,𝑝(𝑟,0)= 𝑝𝑎.

 The internal boundary condition of clothing microclimate is the expression of heat flux
on the skin surface, which contains the radiant exothermicity between the skin and the inner
surface of the clothing, as well as the heat conduction caused by the temperature gradient.
According to the expression of heat flux, the internal boundary condition of heat
transmission in microclimate is as follows:

∂t ∂t
−2𝜋𝑟𝜆 +𝑞𝑤1 + 𝑞𝑏𝑓 =𝑐𝜌𝑑𝑣 .
∂r ∂r

where qw1 is the heat flux of the skin surface W/m2, qbf is the radiant exothermicity between the
skin surface and the inner surface of the clothing W/m2.
The heat transfer from the temperature gradient also occurs at the outer boundary of the
clothing microclimate. Hence, the external boundary condition is given by the following:

∂t ∂t
−2𝜋𝑟𝜆 ∂r− 𝑞 𝑤2 =𝑐𝜌𝑑𝑣 ∂r.

where qw2 is the heat flux between the air layer and the external environment W/m2.
The parameters involved in the clothing microclimate heat transfer model are not
constant; they are the variables of the physical parameters of time and temperature changes.
The variation of these variables is discussed below with detailed expression.

The thermal conductivity of dry air 𝜆𝑔 is

𝜆𝑔 = (2.438714 + 0.7784798 × 10−2 𝑡 − 0.17553068 × 10−5 𝑡2 ) × 102

This formula can be applied to temperatures between 0 and 200 °C, whereas the
absolute error is less than 2.5 J/ (KG. `C)
The thermal conductivity of the saturated moist air 𝜆𝑠 is

𝜆𝑠=(2.38874 + 0.8798147 × 10−2 𝑡 − 0.1150367 × 10−3𝑡2)×102.

This formula can be applied to temperatures between 0 and 90 °C, whereas the absolute error
is less than 0.033×10−2𝑤/(𝑚.𝐶∘).
The specific heat of dry air 𝐶𝜌𝑔 is

𝐶𝜌𝑔 =1005.28−0.260338× 10−1𝑡+0.6370071×10−3𝑡2

This formula can be applied to temperatures between 0 and 200 °C, and the absolute error is
less than 2.5𝐽/(𝑘𝑔.C°).
The specific heat of the saturated moist air 𝐶𝜌S is

𝐶𝜌S =990.56+8.75522𝑡−0.39159 𝑡2 +0.55695𝑡3

This formula can be applied to temperatures between 0 and 80 °C; the absolute error is less
than 4.2𝐽/(𝑘𝑔.C°).

The density of dry air 𝜌𝑔 is

𝜌𝑔 =1.2926 – 0.00463𝑡+1.2619×10−5𝑡2

This formula can be applied to temperatures between −50 and 200 °C, and the absolute error is
less than 0.0214𝑘𝑔/𝑚3.
The density of saturated moist air 𝜌𝑠 is

𝜌𝑠 =1.23669−0.6238325× 10−3𝑡 − 0.9965985 ×10−4𝑡2

This formula can be applied to temperatures between 0 and 90 °C; the absolute error is
less than 0.0.
The microclimate air layer is divided into a finite number of net units using the finite
analysis method; afterward, the differential equations in the thermal field are converted to nodal
equations, and the temperature of each unit node of the net is generated by numerical
calculation [12–14].
The thermal analysis module of the ANSYS finite element software is used to finish
the modeling of FBG temperature field in intelligent clothing; this tool reflects the temperature
measurement error when the human body wears intelligent clothing.
In the finite element model, 0.5 mm is set as the thickness of the air layer, 2 mm is the
thickness of FBG, and 2 mm is the thickness of the cotton fabric, where the thermal
conductivity coefficients are 0.027, 0.19, and 1.2 W/m.K under normal conditions,
respectively. Figure 9 shows the temperature field model established in this study.
 Fig. 9 Temperature finite element model for intelligent clothing.
The study divides the above model into gridding by ANSYS, in which 36 °C is set as
the temperature of the body. The range of the temperature of the external environment is 25
°C–35 °C, with a temperature increasing interval of 1 °C.
The Choi map will then appear (Fig. 10 ). The date of the map shows that when the
body temperature is constant, the external environment temperature increases by 1 °C, and the
FBG-measured temperature will increase by 0.04 °C. The relationship between the change of
the external environment temperature and the change of the FBG-measured temperature is then
acquire. The body temperature is set to 33 °C–42 °C, with 0.5 °C as increment.
The Choi map will then appear (Fig. 10 ). The date of the map shows that when the
body temperature is constant, the external environment temperature increases by 1 °C, and the
FBG-measured temperature will increase by 0.04 °C. The relationship between the change of
the external environment temperature and the change of the FBG-measured temperature is then
acquire.
The body temperature is set to 33 °C–42 °C, with 0.5 °C as increment. The Choi map
is produced when the external environment temperature is 25 °C. The date of the map supports
the analysis that when the external environment temperature is constant, a smaller difference
of the value between the body temperature and the ambient temperature is observed along with
the more accurate FBG temperature measurement. During the experiments, temperature
deviations can be used in the correction of the FBG temperature measurement as a way of
increasing the accuracy of the FBG temperature measurement.
 CHEPTER 4

Body temperature weighted model of intelligent clothing

To measure human body temperature, optical fiber grating temperature sensors are
distributed to five places, namely, left chest, right chest, left armpit, right armpit, and at center
of the upper back.
As different parts of human body have different temperatures, the data obtained from
these five places are not the same. Thus, a weighted model is proposed for the data to derive
the final temperature of the human body.
Skin temperature is an important parameter in human physiology. When human beings
exchange energy with the environment, skin becomes the interface. The mean skin temperature
becomes a significant value in calculating human energy loss as well as in analyzing
thermoregulation and other physiological activities.
According to the characteristics of dissection, the human body can be divided into
several parts with similar dissecting structures and temperature distributions: head, torso, arm,
leg, and so on. Subsequently, one or more measuring points can be set on each part, and these
temperature data by can be weighed by weighted coefficients from the proportion that these
parts occupy in the entire area of the human body. The total score is the human body weighted
mean skin temperature (Ts), which can be shown as the following formula:

Ts = C1Ts1 + C2Ts2 + ……CnTsn

In this formula, TS1, TS2, and TSn represent the temperature of each part in centigrade,
and C1, C2, and Cn represent the weighted coefficients of each part in the non-dimensional
analysis.
The information about skin temperature used in the equations above mostly comes from
testees who were naked or wearing single layer under slightly hotter or warm environment.
Under such environment, skin vessels were stretching or in normal state, leading to total skin
temperature’s evenly distributed, so non-weighted method and one point thermometry can
work well.
However, when people wear thick clothing, especially in cold environment, skin
temperature and its distribution will be physiological reaction to the comprehensive function
of environmental temperature, clothing, and body activities, and the skin temperature
distribution is uneven, so it becomes difficult to get accurate mean skin temperature through a
few skin temperature measuring points. Nielsen ever did an experiment on people wearing
thick clothing at 10 °C [15].
He created thirteen points equation based on Qlesen four-point method, and then
selected this as the standard to compare with other eleven weighted equations. The result
showed that Teichner six-point method and Ramanathan four-point method all had some
differences with the standard skin temperature, only Mitchell twelve-point method, Gagge-
Nishi eight-point method and Hardy-Dubios seven-point method had high consistency
frequency with the standard skin temperature. In Nielsen’s opinion, multipoint weighted
method was the best in cold environment.
As the intelligent clothing currently under investigation is mainly for the upper body,
this work proposes a new five-point method that is an improvement of the Hardy-Dubios seven-
point method by setting two FBG temperature sensors on the chest and armpits, and another
between the two shoulder blades on the upper back.
According to related papers, the breast temperature should be the highest and followed
by the armpit temperature. The armpit temperature has almost no difference between the right
and the left sides, whereas the upper back temperature should be the lowest. Hence, the data
obtained from these five measuring points should yield the weighted average for the mean skin
temperature.
The weighted coefficients of these five FBG sensors are C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5 which
are 0.0826, 0.3706, 0.3706, 0.0936, and 0.0826, respectively, according to the table.
In special cases, when some FBG sensors are broken, the weighted coefficients of the
other sensors can be changed to generate the accurate body temperature. These cases can be
categorized into the following conditions:
1. If a sensor placed on the breast or under the armpit is not working, while others work
well, the temperature measured by the sensor on the symmetrical side of the broken
sensor can be used because the temperature on the right breast is the same as that of the
left breast, similar with the two armpits.
2. If a sensor on the upper back is not working, while others work well, the upper back
temperature measurement can be disregarded. Data from the other sensors can then be
calculated using new weighted coefficients C1, C2, C3, and C5 which are 0.0788,
0.4212, 0.4212, and 0.0788, respectively.
3. If the two sensors on the breasts are not working, while others work well, the data of
the two sensors can be disregarded. The data from the other sensors can then be
calculated using new weighted coefficients C2, C3, and C4 which are 0.4361, 0.4361,
and 0.1278, respectively.
4. If the two sensors under the armpits are not working, while others work well, the data
of these two sensors can be disregarded. The data of others can then be calculate using
new weighted coefficients C1, C4, and C5 which are 0.3112, 0.3776, and 0.3112,
respectively.
5. In considering these special situations, the weighted coefficients can be changed to
guarantee the result of the experiments in real time even when some sensors are not
working
 CHEPTER 5
MATERIALS AND METHODS
5.1. Data Collection
Study Design This study aimed to determine whether the physiological cardiac
parameters obtained from smart clothing and 3M gel electrode patches were comparable. The
inclusion criteria were Taiwanese residence and an age of 20–60 years. Five males and five
females participated in the study.
The study content and objectives were explained to the subjects before the experiment,
and their informed consent was obtained. None of the participants had any significant medical
conditions. Data acquisition was performed in three phases.
Phase 1: Three materials were used. A: This was made of 100% silver fiber using a single
jersey knitting method. It had the highest ratio of silver fiber to increase the skin contact area
compared with the other materials. B: The material was made of 75% silver fiber, 23%
polyester, and 2% spandex using a single jersey knitting method. Elastic spandex fibers were
added to increase tightness. C: The material was made of 50% silver fiber and 50% nylon using
the French terry knitting method to decrease material costs. (Shown below as A, B, and C;
Figure 10). The electrical conductivity of the three materials was evaluated, and the most
suitable conductive material was used to design the smart clothing.

Figure 10 - The three types (a–f) of conductive material (1× and 230× magnification).

Phase 2: Smart clothing fitted for each subject was worn for 12 h at home. A 5-point Likert
scale (i.e., extremely comfortable, comfortable, fair, uncomfortable, and extremely
uncomfortable) was used to assess their responses in terms of material, tactile sensation, tight-
fitting lines, hygroscopicity, breathability, and mobility.

Phase 3: MAX30001 was used to measure the physiological cardiac parameters of the smart
clothing. Simultaneously, 3M gel electrode patches were used to measure the same parameters.
A total of 23,040 datasets were generated by the smart clothing and 3M gel electrode patches
during 3 min interval measurements. The HR datasets from the smart clothing were compared
with the datasets from the 3M gel electrode patches.

5.2. Smart Clothing Design

The smart clothing used fabric that combines conductive silver fibers and traditional
highly elastic spandex fibers. This type of hybrid fabric minimizes the relative movement
between the conductive silver fibers and the skin to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio of the
data and to increases user comfort.
Three metallic button electrodes were fixed in the front chest and waist in the
conductive cloth to sense and acquire the data. A zipper was added in front of the smart clothing
to increase the ease of wearing and removing the clothing (as shown in Figure 11). Three
electrodes, labeled as BIN, BB, and BP, were designed as part of the smart cloth to transmit
data, measure signals, and calculate potential changes for conversion to real-time data,
respectively.

Figure 4 Smart clothing design.

5.3. Data Analysis

This study was conducted indoors where the temperature and relative humidity were
maintained at 26 °C–28 °C and 55–65%, respectively. Subjects were required to rest for 10–
15 min after entering the test environment. They were asked to lay in a supine position in a
relaxed manner (Figure 12).
Before beginning data acquisition, the aim and method of the test were explained to
each subject. As baseline data, all subjects completed 3 min monitoring of the physiological
cardiac parameters using smart clothing and 3M gel electrode patches. After this, 23,040 (128
sets × 180 s) HRm datasets were generated as test samples. After the baseline test was
completed, the subjects responded to the questionnaire on the comfort of the smart clothing.
Figure 12 Subject rests in a supine position on a bed in a relaxed manner.

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
The FBG used in the experiment is encapsulated in unsaturated polymer resin. From
the FBG sensors with 0.15 nm/°C sensitivity coefficient at the temperature of 33 °C–42 °C
based on the improved packaging technology, the sensor’s sensitivity coefficient is almost 15
times that of the bare FBG. Figure 5 shows an intelligent clothing sample which has implanted
FBG sensors.
The sensors are placed in the right chest, right armpit, left armpit, upper back, and left
chest. In the experiment, the center wavelength data of the FBG sensors reflect the light first,
prior to combining them with the sensitivity coefficients of the five FBG sensors. Afterward,
the temperature measurements of the five points can be obtained through analysis and
calculation using the formula.
The temperature measured by the FBG error is ± 0.18 °C compared with the medical
mercury thermometer, whereas the accuracy of the body temperature measurement is 0.1 °C.
This accuracy meets the requirements of this study. The correlation is significant at the 0.01
level (two-tailed).
Using distributed FBG sensors to measure human body temperature, this study has
acquired a sample of intelligent clothing and examined the heat transmission mechanism from
many aspects, including the basic theory of human physiology, human thermal balance, and
the theory of aerial heat transmission.
A mathematic model of heat transmission for the human skin, the air, and clothing has
also been established. This model provides the theoretical basis of human temperature
measurement using intelligent clothing with distributed FBG sensors and demonstrates the
planting of optical fiber grating into the clothing.
This paper also proposes that the model, which is an improvement of the Hardy-Dubios
seven-point method, confirms the measuring points of distributed FBG sensors in intelligent
clothing. In the experiment, the difference between the body temperature measured by the
distributed FBG sensors in intelligent clothing and the analog data of the thermal field has no
statistical significance. Thus, the temperature measured by the distributed FBG sensors can be
used to represent human body temperature in clinics.
Based on this, the researchers intend to expand research in intelligent clothing to cover
the measuring and recording of real-time physiological information, such as human respiration,
heartbeat, blood pressure, and other physiological signals. At the same time, some social trends,
such as the growth of population aging and the increase of public awareness on health care,
will change the form of pure hospital treatment into another form that combines the hospital,
community, family, and individual.
Thus, wearable biomedical instruments, which are non-intrusive, non-invasive, and
continuously being monitored, will become important monitoring and diagnostic devices under
this new type of medical model. These tools can detect and process physiological signals,
extract signal characterization, transmit data, and have other basic functions.
Life-intelligent clothing can monitor patients’ suffering from heart disease or high
blood pressure and the state of illness in a timely manner. Consequently, patients can ask for
treatment and prevent complications and death. More importantly, intelligent clothing can
record the physiological parameters of athletes, soldiers, astronauts, and others. These data can
be used in the research on human physiology and health conditions. Life-intelligent clothing
can then be applied widely in many fields, such as medical treatment, sports, military, and
aeronautics.

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