Analytical chemistry

Lecture 1
 What is Analytical Chemistry?
Analytical chemistry is concerned with the
.chemical characterization of matter
Classification of Analytical Chemistry

Qualitative analysis )‫(تحليل كيفي‬ Quantitative analysis )‫(تحليل كمي‬

Tell us what chemicals are Tell us how much
present in a given sample
 Quantitative analysis
Gravimetric analysis ]1[
Gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of material
present by weighing the sample before and/or after some
transformation

Volumetric analysis ]2[

titration ‫هذه الطريقة تعتمد علي عمل‬
‫ أنواع من المعايرات‬4 ‫يوجد بها‬
Acid – base titration )1
Redox titration )2
Precipitation titration )3
Compleximetric titration )4
 Important terms in Analytical Chemistry

Accuracy Precision
Accuracy : is the degree of agreement between
a measured value and a true (an expected)
.value
."‫تشير الدقة إلى مدى تقارب القيمة المقاسة للكمية مع قيمتها "الحقيقية‬
Precision: is the degree of agreement between
replicate measurements of the same quantity and
.does not necessarily imply accuracy

‫هو قياس للتوافق بين قياسات متكررة من القيمة الحقيقية في العينة‬

These concepts can be illustrated with a target,
as in the following Fig

You are both precise and accurate

You are precise and inaccurate
You are imprecise and inaccurate
Distinguish between specificity
and selectivity
Specificity : A specific reaction is one that occur only
with the substance of interest

Examples
Consider the hydrolysis of urea in the presence of the )1(
.enzyme urease
Urease
NH2CONH2 + 2H2O + H+
-
2NH4+ + HCO3
Pyrocatechol violet is a specific indicator for Bi3+ in acidic )2(
solutions (pH 1-3)

+
2M + L1 M2L1 Blue + 3H

+
M2L1 + EDTA M-EDTA + L1 + 3H
Blue titrant (complexing agent) complex yellow
Selectivity: A selective reaction is one that can occur with
other substances but exhibits a degree of preference for the
substance of interest. Few reactions are specific but many
.exhibit selectivity

Examples

Sham + Fe 3+ Sham-Fe log kf = 14.8 at

complex 25oC, I = 0

Sham + Zn 2+ Sham-Zn log kf = 5.88

complex under the
same conditions
Salicylhydroxamic acid (SHA or SHAM)
In Egypt, it is recommended to use Sham as an effective
and low cost pharmaceutical drug. It acts against renal
.stone formation
 Data handling
‫معالجة البيانات المعملية احصائيا‬
Ways of expressing Accuracy
Absolute error ]1[ ‫الخطأ المطلق‬
It is the difference between the measured value and the true
value with regard to the sign and it is reported in the same
unites as the measurements
 Example
If a 2.62 g sample of material is analyzed to
?be 2.52 g. what is the absolute error
Absolute error = measued value – true value
g 0.10 - = 2.62 – 2.52 =

Note
If the measured value is the average of several
measurements and the error is called the mean error
 Relative error ]2[
The absolute or mean error expressed a percentage
.of the true value is the relative error

.REaccuracy = (Absolute error / “True” value) × 100%

3.8% - = 100% × )2.62/ 0.10 -( =

The relative accuracy
It is the measured value or mean expressed as
a .percentage of the true value
Example
If a 2.62 g sample of material is analyzed to be 2.52 g. what
?is the relative accuracy

The relative accuracy = (2.52/2.62) × 100%

96.2% =
 The arithmetic mean (mean)
X = (X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 + …..) / n

The spread of the values is measured most efficiently by the

standard deviation is defined by

√ ( 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 ) 2 +( 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 ) 2 + …
=S
𝑛 −1
The variance: is the square of the standard deviation
: Coefficient of variation (C.V)
is a more accurate measure of the precision
C.V = S × 100
X

Example. Analysis of a sample of iron ore gave the

following percentage values for the iron content 7.08, 7.21,
7.12, 7.09, 7.16, 7.14, 7.07, 7.14, 7.18, 7.11. Calculate the
mean, standard variation and coefficient of variation for the
values
2
)X-X( X-X Results (X)

0.0025 0.05 - 7.08

0.0064 0.08 7.21
0.0001 0.01 - 7.12
0.0016 0.04 - 7.09
0.0009 0.03 7.16
0.0001 0.01 7.14
0.0036 0.06 - 7.07
0.0001 0.01 7.14
0.0025 0.05 7.18
0.0004 0.02 - 7.11
= 0.0182 Total = 71.30
Mean (x) = 7.13
 √ 0.0182
± = S 10 −1

±= √ 0.0020
0.045 ± =

C.V = 0.045 × 100

7.13
0.63 =
 Comparison of Results
There are methods used to test the results. The most common
methods are: (a) The variance ratio test (F- test) and (b)
Students t-test

F- test: This is used to compare the precision of two sets of )a(

data: for example, the results of two different analytical methods or
results from two different laboratories . It is calculated from the
:equation

F = S2 A / S 2 B Where S 2 A > S2 B
Example: The standard deviation from one set of 11
determinations SA = 0.210, and the standard deviation from
another 13 determinations was SB = 0.641. Calculate the
.value of F

F = S2 B / S 2 A
F = (0.641)2 / (0.210)2
9.4 =
Student’s t-test )b(
It is used for small samples; its purpose is to compare the
.mean from a sample with some standard value

Example
If X the mean of 12 determinations = 8.37, and

t 9.4 =
 Acid – base titrations

Titrant

Titrand
 The choice of indicators
Me.R Me. O Ph.ph Indicator

4-6 3.1-5 8-10 pH interval

A strong acid against a strong base )1(

A weak acid against a strong base )2(
A weak base against a strong acid )3(
A weak base against a weak acid )4(
Titration of a strong acid (HCl) with a strong
base (NaOH)
PH ]+H[ M of HCl Total volume NaOH mL HCl
unreacted
1.0 10-1 ×1 0.1 10.0 0.0 10.0

1.1 10-2 ×8 11 / )0.1 × 9( 11.0 1.0 9.0

1.48 10-2 ×3 15 / )0.1 × 5( 15.0 5.0 5.0

2.3 10-3 ×5 19 / )0.1 × 1.0( 19 9.0 1.0

3.3 10-4 ×5 19.9 / )0.1 × 0.1( 19.9 9.9 0.1
7.0 10-7 ×1 Neutral solution 20.0 10.0 ----
pH pOH ]-OH[ M of NaOH
10.7 =14-3.3 10-4 × 5 20.1 / )0.1 × 0.1( 20.1 10.1

11.7= 14-2.3 10-3 × 5 21 / )0.1 × 1.0( 21.0 11.0 ----

Since the change in pH corresponding to 0.1 mL addition of
NaOH just before and after the end point is from 3.3-10.7, we
can use either Ph.ph, Me.O, Me.R
 :Endpoint
Point is indicated by colour change of the indicator

Equivalence Point

The point at which the titrant is chemically equivalent to the

analyte in the sample
Lecture 3
 Titration of a weak monobasic acid with a ]2[
strong base

Before titration

HA -
H+ + A Where [H+] = [A-]
conjugate base

Ka = [H+] [A-]
]HA[
acid dissociation constant

Since [H+] or [ A-] is too small in comparison with [HA] then [HA]
: represents the conc. of the weak a cid, C, thus
2
= Ka C]+H[
 1/2
)Ka C( = ]+H[

During titration, before the end point

Ka [HA] / [A -
] = ]+H[

Ka [acid] / [salt] =
pH= pKa – log [[acid] / [salt]]

pH= pKa + log ([salt] / [acid])

Henderson-Hasselbach equation
 volume of alkali added = ]salt[

volume of acid remaining = ]acid[

At the end point

A- + HOH OH- + HA Where [OH-] = [HA]

Formed salt
Kh = [OH-] [HA] Multiplying both sides by [H+]
]-A[
Kh = [H+] [OH-] [HA] = Kw/Ka
] -A[ ]+H[
Hydrolysis constant
Kh = [OH-]2
]salt[
 1/2
)]salt[) Kw/Ka(( = ]-OH[

pOH = - log [(Kw/Ka) [salt])1/2

pH = pkw – pOH
After the end point

pH values are calculated exactly as in the case of neutralization of

.a strong acid with a strong base
 Titration of 0.1 M acetic acid with 0.1 M NaOH
pH M of HCl Total NaOH mL acid
volume unreacted
2.90 1/2
)Ka C( = ]+H[ 10.0 0.0 10.0
1/2
)0.1 ×10-5 ×1.8( =
3.79 pH= pKa + log [salt] / [acid] 11.0 1.0 9.0
log [1] / [9] + 4.74 =

4.74 log [5] / [5] + 4.74 = 15.0 5.0 5.0

5.69 log ([9] / [1] + 4.74 = ( 19 9.0 1.0
6.73 log [9.9 / 0.1] + 4.74 = 19.9 9.9 0.1
8.72 POH = - log [(Kw/Ka) [salt])1/2 20.0 10.0 ----
log[(10-14/1.8×10-5) [(10× 0.1) - =
½
/20]
pH ]-OH[ .Total vol
10.7 =14-3.3 20.1 / )0.1 × 0.1( 20.1 10.1

11.7= 14-2.3 20.1 / )0.1 × 1( 21.0 11.0 ----

Since the change in pH corresponding to 0.1 mL addition of NaOH
just before and after the end point is from 6.73-10.70, we can use only
Ph.ph
 Neutralization of a weak dibasic acid H2A with
a strong base
:The reaction occurs in two steps

H2A + OH- = H2O + HA

-
)monobasic acid(

HA- + OH- = H2O + A2

-
)dibasic acid(

This means that 1 mol of acid requires two moles of base

 Titration of the polybasic acid as a monobasic acid
It depends on the pH value at the end point for the first
step of neutralization which can be calculated by the
:following relation
pH = ½ (pK1 +pK2)
 Examples
Malonic acid (CH2COOH)2 (pK1 = 2.85 , pK2 = 5.66) -1

pH = ½ (pK1 +pK2)

pH = ½ (2.85+5.66) = 4.25

Malonic acid can be titrated as a monobasic acid using Me.O or

.Me. R
Oxalic acid H2C2O4 (K1 = 6.5× 10-2 , K2 = 6.1× 10-5 ) -2

pH = ½ (pK1 +pK2)

pH = ½ (- log 6.5× 10-2 - log 6.1× 10-5 ) =2.7

Oxalic acid can be titrated as a monobasic acid

 Titration of the polybasic acid as a dibasic acid

The choice of suitable indicator depends on the pH value after

:adding two moles of NaOH to one mole of the acid

H2A + 2OH- = 2H2O + A2

-

:The anion A2- undergoes hydrolysis according to

A2-+ HOH = OH- + HA
Kh = [OH-] [HA]
] -A2[ ]HOH[

)]salt[) Kw/Ka(( = ]-OH[

1/2
 Kh = [H+] [OH-] [HA] = Kw/K2 = [OH-]2 / [salt]
] -A2[ ]+H[

)]salt[) Kw/K2(( = ]-OH[

1/2

POH = – log [OH-]

pH = pkw – pOH
 Example
In titrating 10 mL 0.1 M H2C2O4 with 0.1 M NaOH at the end point
(after adding 10 ml 0.1 NaOH). Ka = 6.1× 10-5

20 = 5× 10-2 mol/ L / )0.1 ×10( = ]salt[

1/2
)]salt[) Kw/K2(( = ]-OH[
1/2
= 2.86× 10-6)] 5× 10-2[ ) 10-14 / 6.1× 10-5( = ]-OH[
pOH = -log [OH-] = - log 2.86× 10-6

pH = 14 – pOH = 14-5.54= 8.46

Ph. Ph is a suitable indicator

Titration of tribasic acid H3PO4 with NaOH

As a monobasic acid )a(

pH = ½ (pK1 +pK2)
pH = ½ (- log 7.5× 10-3 - log 6.2× 10-8 ) = 4.66

Me. O is a suitable indicator

As a dibasic acid )b(

pH = ½ (pK2 +pK3)

pH = ½ (- log 6.2× 10-8 - log 5× 10-13 ) = 9.75

Ph. Ph is a suitable indicator

 As a tribasic acid )c(
After adding 3 moles of NaOH to 1 mole of the acid, PO43- will be
produced, which hydrolysis with water giving an alkaline solution (pH
:=13), thus
-
H3PO4 + 3OH- = 3 H2O + PO43

-
PO43- + 3 H2O = H3PO4 + 3OH pH = 13

Therefore, there is no direct method for titrating H3PO4 as a

tribasic acid
 An indirect method
It involves addition of CaCl2 to convert HPO42- to insoluble Ca3(PO4)2
.and titrate HCl produced with standard NaOH solution
2HPO42- + 3 Ca2+ = 2H+ + Ca3(PO4)2
Lecture 4
 Titration of a weak base with a strong acid ]2[

Before titration

1/2
)Kb C( = ]-OH[

During titration, before the end point

pOH= pKa – log [[base] / [salt]]

pH= pKb + log ([salt] / [base])

 volume of acid added = ]salt[

volume of base remaining = ]base[

At the end point

1/2
)]salt[) Kw/Kb(( = ]+H[

PH = - log [(Kw/Kb) [salt])1/2

Example: Titration of 10 ml 0.1 M NH4OH with 0.1 M HCl
kb for NH4OH = 1.8× 10-5

Before titration
1/2
)Kb C( = ]-OH[
1/2
)1.8× 10-5 × 0.1( = ]-OH[ 10-3 ×1.3 =

pOH= - log 1.3× 10-3 =2.9

pH= 14-2.9 =11.10
 After addition of 9.9 ml 0.1M HCl

pOH = pKb + log ([salt] / [base])

log 1.8× 10-5 + log (9.9 / 0.1) = 6.73- =

pH= 14 - 6.73 = 7.27

At the end point
1/2
)]salt[) Kw/Kb(( = ]+H[
1/2
)] 5× 10-2[) 10-14/ 1.8× 10-5(( = ]+H[
10-6 ×5.3 =
pH= - log 5.3× 10-6 = 5.28
 After the end point

After addition of 10.1 ml 0.1M HCl

20.1 /)0.1 × 0.1( = ]+H[

mole/L 10-4 ×5 =

pH= - log 5× 10-4 = 3.3

Since the change in pH corresponding to 0.1 mL addition of HCl

just before and after the end point is from 7.27-3.3, we can use
.only Me. O or Me. R as suitable indicators
V of 0.1 M HCl
 Titration of a weak acid with a weak base

Example
M acetic acid with 0.1 M NH4OH 0.1
The titration curve has no sharp inflections at the end point
and therefore, no simple acid-base indicator will give a
sudden change of colour at this point
 Displacement titrations
This type of titration can be used in case of salts derived from a
weak acid and a strong base
e.g. NaCN

Titration of 10 mL 0.2 NaCN with 0.2 N HCl ( ka for HCN =

7.2× 10-10 at 25oC
NaCN + HCl = HCN + NaCl

C = (10 × 0.2)/20 = 0.1 mole/ L

1/2
)7.2× 10-10 × 0.1( = ]+H[
1/2
)0.1 × 10-10 ×7.2( =

pH= - log 8.5× 10-6 = 5.07

Redoximetry
 Oxidation Reduction
- Loss of electrons -gain of electrons

+
Fe2+ = 2e- + 2 Fe3 2 Cl2 + 2e- = 2 Cl
-

Reductant oxidant
Reducing agent oxidizing agent

Eq. Wt = Mw/x
 Titration of H2O2 with KMnO4

H2O2 acts as an oxidant or as a reductant

​ ​⟶ H2​O−2 + O20​
​ 2O2 −1
H
H2O2 ​can be reduced to H2​O as well as it can be oxidised to O2 ​.
Hence, it can act as an oxidizing agent by itself getting reduced to H2​
O as well as it can act as a reducing agent by getting oxidized to O2.
.Therefore, it can act as oxidizing as well as reducing agent
 Eq.wt of KMnO4

In acidic medium
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- = Mn2+ + 4H2O
Mn7
+

Eq. Wt = Mw/5
In neutral or alkaline medium
-
MnO4- + 2H2O + 3e- = MnO2 + 4OH
Eq. Wt = Mw/3
MnO4 acts as a stronger oxidizing
agent than I2
This depends on the value of standard redox potential

MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- = Mn2+ + 4H2O EO = 1.5 volt

-
I2 + 2e- = 2I EO = 0.54 volt

Therefore, the tendency of MnO4- to oxidize I- increases

MnO4- + 5I- + 8H+ = Mn2+ + 5/2 I2 + 4H2O EO = 0.96 volt
Titrations are carried out in a medium of
H2SO4

MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- = Mn2+ + 4H2O

HCl should not be used, because it is oxidized to Cl2

MnO4- + 5 Cl- + 8H+ = Mn2+ + 5/2 Cl2 + 4H2O

Then leads to consumption of MnO4- more than required to

oxidize the reducing agent
If application of HCl is unavoidable as in the case of analysis of
iron alum, the oxidation power of MnO4- must be lowered to
-
decrease its tendency to oxidize Cl

This can be achieved using Zimmermann solution (Preventive

solution). It contains MnSO4, H2SO4 and H3PO4

MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- = Mn2+ + 4H2O

MnSO4 = Mn2+ + SO42

-

Presence of MnSO4 increases Mn2+ ions and hence the previous

equilibrium tends to be shifted to the left side (lowering of the
. oxidation power of MnO4- )
 H3PO4 has a dual effect

It combines with the yellow coloured Fe (III) ions forming )1(

-
the colourless diphosphate.ferrate (III) complex ion [Fe(PO 4)2]3
Hence at the end point, a clear pink colour of MnO4- appears

In this respect, it shifts the equilibrium )2(

+
Fe2+ = e- + Fe3
To the right side and so increases the reducing power of
.Fe(II) ions
 -:Internal Indicators
These are those indicators which takes part in the reaction(titration)
and after completion of titration it changes the color of the solution
.indicating the sharp end point
An example of internal indicator is Diphenyl Amine
 Oxidation

Diphenyl amine Diphenylbenzidine colourless

)I( )II(

N N

Diphenylbenzidine violet
)III(
In presence of Fe(II)
Agreenish colour which change to violet when a slight excess of
.Cr2O72- is added just beyond the end point
 Titrations involving iodine

Iodimetry (direct method)

Low solubility in water so we use conc solution of KI)) Titration with I2

This titrations are usually performed in neutral or mildy alkaline (p H= 8)

.solutions

Rationalize
Iodimetry should not be performed in alkaline solutions ]1[
Because I2 will disproportionate
I2 + 2OH- IO- + I- + H2O
dation state= 0 hypoiodate iodide
Oxidation state= 1 Oxidation state= -1
Iodimetry should not be performed in strong acid medium ]2[

The starch used for the end point detection tends to )a(
.hydrolize or decompose in strong acid
The reducing power of several reducing agents increases )b(
. in neutral solution
-
2H++ H3AsO3 + I2 + H2O H3AsO4 + 4I

In acid solution, the equilibrium is shifted to the left, and the

reverse reaction occurs

The I- produced from the reaction tends to be oxidized )b(

.by dissolved oxygen in acid solution
4I- + O2 + 4H+ 2I2 + 2H2O
Iodometry

When an excess of iodide is added to a solution of an oxidizing

agent, I2 is produced in an amount equivalent to the oxidizing
.agent present
.This I2 can therefore be titrated with a reducing agent (Na 2S2O3)
Analysis of an oxidizing agent in this way is called an iodometric
.method
Why iodometric titrations are performed in strong acid ]1[
?medium

Because reactions between many oxidizing agents and iodide

.are promoted by high acidity

Iodometry should be performed quickly with effective stiring ]2[

To prevent local excess of thiosulphate, because it is decomposed

.in acid solution

S2O32- + 2H+ H2SO3 +S

Lecture 5
 Precipitation titration
It is a type of titration which involves the formation of
precipitate during the titration technique

Precipitation titration curve

relation of ml added of standard solution AgNO3 with px(halide)

The smaller the Ksp, the sharper the end point

Problem: Calculate the solubility of CaC2O4 in a
solution containing 0.001 M HCl

+ 2 + [H+]]+H[

-
=S
√ 𝐾 𝑠𝑝
𝛼2
Fraction of the oxalate species present as C2O4 2
Problem: Calculate the solubility of AgBr in 0.10 M
ammonia solution
) Kf1 = 2.5× 103 , Kf2 = 1× 104 ,
= 4× 10-1(

+ kf1kf2[NH3]2 + Kf [NH3]

=S

+
√ 𝐾 𝑠𝑝
𝐵𝑂
Fraction of the silver species present as Ag
 Detection of End point
Standard
Mohr's Method solution of
AgNO3

Ag+ + Cl- AgCl ppt Titration reaction

reaction 2Ag+ + CrO42- Ag2CrO4 End point Halid (Cl

excess Red ppt +or Br or I)
K2CrO4
)indicator(

This method must be performed at a pH of 8

If pH <6, part of the indicator is present as HCrO4-, and more Ag+
.will be required to form the Ag2CrO4 ppt
Above pH 8, Ag(OH) may be precipitated at pH>10
 Volhard method

Standard KSCN
Pot. thiocyanate

+ Halid
Ag+ + X AgX ppt + excess Ag+ Titration reaction Known
excess
Excess Ag+ + SCN AgSCN BackTitration reaction AgNO3
Fe3+ +
indicator+
Fe3+ + SCN Fe(SCN)2+ E.p reaction few drops
HNO3
Red color )ferrous thiocyanate(
 Compleximetric reactions and titrations

Complexometric titration (sometimes chelatometry) is a form

of volumetric analysis in which the formation of a colored
.complex is used to indicate the end point of a titration
They are useful for the determination of a large number of metal
.ions in solution

Ammonia, a simple complexing agent, can not be used as

titrating agent because the stepise formation constants are close
together and are not very large, and a single stiochiometric
.complex can not be observed
 .EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (H4Y (as titrant)
It is a very unselective because it complexes with numerous
.cations

H4Y (acid form of EDTA) have a very low solubility in water, and
.the disodium salt Na2H2Y.2H2O is usually used
 +
Mn+ + H2Y2- MY (n-4) + 2H
+
Mg2+ + H2Y2- MgY (2-4) + 2H
+
Al3+ + H2Y2- AlY (3-4) + 2H

.H2Y2- is perdominant species of EDTA

The solution must be buffered to prevent a large change in pH
.during titration due to the libration of H+ ions

Problem: Adivalent metal ion M2+ reacts with a ligand L to form

a 1:1 complex. Calculate the concentration of metal ion in a
solution prepared by mixing equal volumes of 0.2 M metal ion
.and 0.2 M ligand (Kf =1×108 )
 Metalochromic indicators
.Pyrocatechol violet - Eriochrome Black T – Mueroxide

The metal-idicator complex must be less stable than the metal-EDTA

.complex

The greater the stability constant (Kf) of M- EDTA

.complex, the sharper is the end point
 Masking and Demasking

Demasking is the process in

Masking is a process used which the demasked cation
to prevent one or more of regains its ability to enter
the cations present from into
interaction with EDTA. .a particular reaction
Addition of cyanide CN Example addition of
.for mixture of Zn or Cd formaldehyde or acetone to
 Gravimetric Analysis
Gravimetric analysis is one of the most accurate and precise
methods of macroquantitative analysis of an analyte (the ion being
.analyzed) based on its mass

Steps of gravimetric analysis

Precipitation Digestion
Preparation of the solution ‫ترك الراسب فتره التمام الترسيب‬

Weighing and Drying or ingnition Washing Filteration

calculation ‫تجفيف أو حرق الراسب‬
 Preparation of the solution

pH is important because it influences the solubility of the

.precipitate and the possibility of interferences from other substances

Examples

CaC2O4 is insoluble in basic medium pH >7 -1

+
At low pH, C2O42- + 2H H2C2O4
weak acid
hydroxyquinoline (oxine) can be used to precipitate a -8 -2
large number of elements: but by control of pH , elements can
.be precipitated selectively
 mixture ]+Al3+ + Mg2[

Al3+ can be precipitated at pH 4

+
Oxine oxine anion + H

oxine anion + Al3+ Complex (ppt(

At higher pH than 4 , the ionization step is shifted to the

.+right to precipitate Mg2
If pH is too high, Mg(OH)2 will precipitate causing
. interference
 Von Weimarn
He discovered that the particle size of precipitate is inversely
proportional to the relative supersaturation of the solution ding the
precipitation process

Relative supersaturation = Q-S

S
Q: conc of mixed reagents and is the degree of supersaturation
S: solubility of the precipitate at equilibrium
 How to minimize supersaturation and obtain
large crystals

Add dilute Precipitate at low pH: many

precipitating Precipitation
Precipitation precipitates are soluble in
reagents slowly from hot
from dilute acid medium and this slows
with effective solution. This
solution . the rate of precipitation
stirring .increase S
 Assignment
Calculate the pH of the solution resulting from the -1
addition of 10.0 mL of 0.100 M NaOH to 20.0 mL of
.0.100 M HNO3

2- A 20.0 mL of 0.500 M HCl are mixed with

15.0 mL of 0.500 M NaOH. Calculate the pH of
the resulting solution.
3- Calculate the pH of the following
a) 0.001M NaOH.
b) 0.01M HNO3. c) 10 mL 0.2 N NaCN + 10
mL 0.2 N HCl ( ka for HCN = 7.2× 10-10 )