Softener

Course name: Wet processing II

Course Code: WPE 311
Introduction
• The softeners are surface active agents; that is, their molecules contain both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic components.

• Typically, the molecules contain a long alkyl group, sometimes branched, of 16–22 carbon
atoms, but most have 18 corresponding to the stearyl residues; silicones, paraffins and
polyethylene softeners are exceptions.

• About one-third of the textile softeners are silicone based. As a general, the softening
agents applied are hygroscopic or lubricating agents, which facilitate the fibre sliding within
the fabric structure, thus granting easier deformation and creasing of the fabric.
Why are softeners used for textile processing ?:

The softeners are mainly used for textile processing for the following:

(1) To provide desired softness often described as smooth, supple, super soft, elastic, dry or
slashy.

(2) To influence or to improve technical properties, namely, antistatic, hydrophilicity, elasticity,

sewability and rubbing fastness.

(3) To confer natural touch on synthetic fibres and to improve their wearing comfort by the
regulation of moisture content or smoothness.
How softener improves softness, sewability and tear strength of fabric :
• Softeners act as fiber lubricants and reduce the coefficient of friction between fibers,
yarns, and between a fabric and an object (an abrasive object or a person’s hand). Whenever
yarns slide past each other more easily, the fabric will be more pliable and have better
drape. If some of the lubricant transfers to the skin and the fabric is more pliable, the
fabric will feel soft and silky. Lubricated fabric sliding against lubricated skin gives rise to
lower coefficients of friction and a silky sensation.

• The softening effect is mostly effective on the textile surface. In addition, small softener
molecules may penetrate into the fibres and provide an internal plasticization of the
polymers by reducing the glass transition temperature.
How softener improves softness, sewability and tear strength of fabric (continue..):
• Sewing problems are caused by the friction of a needle rapidly moving through the fabric.
Friction will cause the needle to become hot and soften thermoplastic finishes on the fibers. The
softened finish accumulates in the eye of the needle restricting the passage of the sewing
thread creating more sewing thread breaks. A softener will reduce needle heat buildup, provide a
steady source of needle lubricant and thus reduce thread breakage.

• Tearing resistance, reduced abrasion and improved sewing characteristics are also related to
lower coefficients of friction. Fabric tearing is a function of breaking yarns, one at a time, when
tearing forces are applied to the fabric. Softeners allow yarns to slide past each other more
easily therefore several yarns can bunch up at the point of tear. More fiber mass is brought to
bear and the force required to break the bunch is greater than the force required to break a
single yarn.
The essential properties of a textile softener:

1. Available in forms convenient to handle: stable liquid, predilutable and dosable

2. Compatible with common textile auxiliaries

3. Nonvolatile and stable in high temperature

4. Non-yellowing

5. Should not affect color fastness of dyed materials

6. Low foaming and shear stable; does not deposit on rollers

7. Preferably applicable by exhaust processes with good properties

8. Ecofriendly, nontoxic and dermatologically safe

9. Biodegradable and good price performance

Classification of Softener
Mainly there are 4 types of softener:
1. Cationic Softener
2. Anionic Softener
3. Non-ionic Softener
4. Amphoteric Softener

Anionic Cationic Amphoteric Nonionic

(a) Sulphates (a) Quaternary (a) Sulphobetaines (a) Ethoxylates
(b) Sulphonates ammonium salts (b) Fatty amino (b) Esters
(c) (b) Amino-amides acids (c) Polyethylenes
Sulphosuccinates (c) Cyclic cationics (e.g. (c) Amine oxides (d) Silicones
imidazolines) (e) Waxes
Mechanisms of the softening effect

• The physical arrangement of the usual softener

molecules on the fiber surface is important and

shown in Figure. It depends on the ionic nature of

the softener molecule and the relative

hydrophobicity of the fiber surface.

• Cationic softeners orient themselves with their

positively charged ends toward the partially

negatively charged fiber (zeta potential), creating

a new surface of hydrophobic carbon chains that

provide the characteristic excellent softening and

lubricity. (Figure-a)
Mechanisms of the softening effect: (Cont..)

• Anionic softeners, on the other hand, orient themselves with their negatively

charged ends repelled away from the negatively charged fiber surface. This leads

to higher hydrophilicity, but less softening than with cationic softeners.(Figure-b)

• The orientation of non-ionic softeners depends on the nature of the fiber surface,

with the hydrophilic portion of the softener being attracted to hydrophilic surfaces

and the hydrophobic portion being attracted to hydrophobic surfaces .(Figure-c)

Cationic Softener:
• Cationic softeners are ionic molecules that have a positive charge on the large part of the
molecule. The important ones are based on nitrogen, either in the form of an amine or in the form
of a quaternary ammonium salt. The amine becomes positively charged at acidic pHs and
therefore functions as a cationic material at pH below 7. Quaternary ammonium salts (hereafter
referred to as QUATS), retain their cationic nature at all pHs. So, The organic quaternary
compounds (QUATs) have pH-independent positive charge.

• This class of softeners is most widely used because of its high degree of substantivity (especially
to cotton and acrylic fibers) and effectiveness at low concentrations.
Advantages of cationic softener:
• Cationic softeners have the best softness and imparts fluffy, silky hand to almost all fabrics at
very low levels of add-on.

• Cationic softeners are reasonably durable to laundering.

• They have affinity to almost all fibers and are usually applied by the exhaust method in acid
environment (pH 4-5).

• Cationic softeners improve tear resistance, abrasion resistance and fabric sewability.

• They also improve antistatic properties of synthetic fibers.

• They are compatible with most resin finishes.

• They are good for fabrics to be napped or sueded.

Disadvantages of Cationic softener:
• They are usually not compatible with anionic products (precipitation of insoluble adducts) such
as optical brighteners and dyeing auxiliaries.

• They provide a hydrophobic surface and poor rewetting properties, because their hydrophobic
groups are oriented away from the fiber surface.

• They have poor resistance to yellowing for which cationic softeners are mainly used for
coloured textile substrates and have higher soil retention property.

• They may change dye shade or affect light fastness of direct and reactive dyes.

• They retain chlorine from bleach bath.

Why does cationic softener cause yellowing of fabric?

• Cationic softeners used in textile treatment can cause fabric to turn yellow due to various
factors.

• The chemical nature of the softeners, high temperature, prolonged storage, and specific
formulations contribute to the yellowing effect.

• The softeners' oily adhesive structure can trap chlorine from bleach baths, forming chloramine,
which further causes yellowing.

• Additionally, the presence of free amines in the softeners leads to air oxidation during drying,
resulting in the formation of azo yellow compounds that turn the fabric yellow.

• To address this issue, manufacturers can modify softeners through processes like quaternization
or cyclization to reduce the free amine content and subsequently prevent yellowing. Cationic
softeners with ester quate structures, which do not contain free amines, are preferred to avoid
fabric yellowing.
Anionic Softener:
Anionic softeners are composed of high molecular weight fatty chains and made soluble by -
COONa, -OSO3Na, and -SO3Na groups. They have limited use in textile processing but find
applications in raising and sanforizing processes, improving smoothness, anti-static, and rewetting
properties. Anionic softeners can also be used in combination with other anionic substances for
specific finishing purposes.
Advantages of anionic softener:
• Heat stability: Anionic softeners can withstand normal textile processing temperatures without
losing their effectiveness.

• Yellowing resistance: Some anionic softeners show resistance to yellowing, helping to maintain
the fabric's original color.

• Crease prevention: They act as effective crease-preventing agents in dyeing processes,

ensuring minimal or no retardation of the dyeing process.

• Compatibility: Anionic softeners are compatible with other components of dye and bleach baths,
making them suitable for various textile processing combinations.

• Antistatic effects: These softeners provide strong antistatic effects due to their anionic
groups being oriented outward and surrounded by a thick hydration layer.
Advantages of anionic softener (cont..)
• Rewetting properties: Anionic softeners also offer good rewetting properties, enhancing the
fabric's moisture absorption capabilities.

• Hydrolysis resistance: Sulfonates, a type of anionic softener, are resistant to hydrolysis,

ensuring their stability during processing.

• Special applications: Anionic softeners are often used in special applications, such as medical
textiles, where specific properties are required.

• Combination use: They can be combined with anionic fluorescent brightening agents for specific
finishing purposes, providing added benefits to the textiles.

Overall, anionic softeners offer several advantages in textile processing, making them valuable
for various applications and finishing requirements.
Disadvantages of anionic softener:

While anionic softeners have their advantages, they come with some limitations.

• The degree of softness they provide may not be as significant as that offered by cationic and
certain non-ionic softeners. Additionally, anionic softeners have limited durability to laundering
and dry cleaning processes.

• Anionic softeners do not exhaust from a bath, meaning they do not readily adhere to fabrics
during the finishing process; instead, they must be physically deposited on the fabric.

• Water hardness and the presence of electrolytes in finish baths can affect the performance of
anionic softeners, making them sensitive to these factors.

• Furthermore, anionic softeners may be incompatible with cationically stabilized emulsions used
in some finish baths, which can affect their overall effectiveness.
Nonionic Softener
• Nonionic softeners do not carry any electrical charge and therefore do not possess any distinctive
substantivity. Such products are applied by means of forced application (i.e. usually in padding
mangle procedures). Nonionic softeners can be combined universally, are stable to temperature and
do not show yellowing. This is the reason that this product class is perfect for finishing optically
brightened, highly white articles.

• In the case of nonionic products, a fatty chain of high molecular weight (i.e. saturated compound of
C16–C18) provides the softening effect, and the solubility is provided by condensation with an

ethylene oxide chain (EO). They have a general formula, R(OC 2H4)nOH or R(C2H4)nOOH (where
R=alkyl), and contain different nonionic components such as fatty alcohols, ethoxylated fatty
alcohols and fatty amines, paraffins and oxidized polyethylene waxes as active ingredients.

R-(CH2-CH2-O)n-OH RCOOR’ -(-CH2-CH2-)-

Ethoxylated compound Fatty ester Polyethylene

Fig: General Structure of some non-ionic softeners

Nonionic Softener (cont..)
• Different types of nonionic softeners have specific functions. For example, ethoxylates provide
softness and antistatic properties, esters-based softeners offer lubrication, polyethylenes
improve tensile properties, waxes provide lubricity, but none of them alone gives a soft and bulky
handle to textile.

• For achieving softness, other types of softeners like anionic, cationic, or amphoteric components
are often required.

• This is why softener formulations often involve a combination of various softener types to
achieve the desired properties and enhance the overall performance of the treated fabrics.
 Amphoteric softeners
• Amphoteric softeners are a type of textile
finishing agent that possesses both acidic and basic
functional groups and can act as either an acid or a
base depending on the pH conditions of the
surrounding environment.

• They are used in textile processing to impart

various properties to fabrics, such as softness,
hydrophilicity, and antistatic effects.

• Amphoteric softeners are particularly valued for

their skin-friendly nature, making them suitable for
applications in hygiene articles and medical textiles.

• However, they have poor durability in washing.

Reactive softeners
• Reactive softeners are a type of textile softener that chemically reacts and forms covalent
bonds with fibers. This reaction ensures that the softening effect becomes a permanent part
of the textile, providing durable and long-lasting softness even after multiple washes.

• Examples of reactive softening agents are

(1) N-methylol compounds of higher fatty acid amides (e.g. N-methylol stearic amide)

(2) N-methylol compounds of urea substituted with higher fatty acid (e.g. octadecyl ethylene
urea).

• They contain N-methylol reactive groups. These groups can chemically react with the hydroxyl
groups on cellulose fibers in the presence of an acidic catalyst, such as magnesium chloride or
ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, and at elevated temperatures (typically 140-150 °C).
Continue………….

• Stearylamidomethyl pyridinium chloride ( Velan PF/Zelan AP) when applied without curing
step, it acts as a non reactive cationic softener with some affinity for cellulosic fibers.
However, when the curing step is carried out in the presence of sodium acetate, it reacts
with cellulose as follows :

• Octadecyl ethylene urea reacts with the cellulosic hydroxyl forming a stable bond,
durable to laundering:
Continue……………………
In addition, some polymerization of octadecyl ethylene urea takes place and this polymer gets
hydrogen bonded to cellulose as bellows: .

The reactive softener may be applied as a nonionic softener without curing, when only a temporary
softening effect is produced which is not fast to washing. This may be applied by pad dry technique.
Silicone Softener
• Silicone softener is one kind of non-ionic softener. They are insoluble in water, and
therefore must be applied on fabrics after emulsification or dissolution in organic
solvents. The term ‘silicone’ or ‘polysiloxane’ refers to artificial polymer based on a
framework of alternating silicon and oxygen (siloxane bonds).
Properties of Silicone Softener

• Softness: Silicone softeners provide a soft and smooth handle to textiles, enhancing
comfort and feel when in contact with the skin.

• Durability: The softening effect of silicone softeners is long-lasting and remains even
after repeated washings, ensuring the fabric maintains its softness over time.

• Thermal oxidative stability: Silicone softeners can withstand high temperatures without
undergoing significant degradation or losing their effectiveness.

• Low temperature flowability: Silicone softeners remain fluid and can spread easily at lower
temperatures, making them suitable for use in various production conditions.

• Hydrophobicity: Silicone softeners impart water repellency to treated fabrics, protecting

them from moisture and enhancing their performance in wet conditions.
Properties of Silicone Softener (cont..)

• Low surface tension: The low surface tension of silicone softeners allows them to spread
evenly and provide uniform coverage on fabric surfaces.

• Good electrical properties: Silicone softeners are electrically insulating, making them
suitable for use in certain applications where electrical properties are important.

• Nonionic: Silicone softeners are non-ionic, meaning they do not carry an electrical charge,
which allows them to be combined universally with other chemical additives.

• Cost-effective: Due to their high effectiveness at very low concentrations, silicone

softeners can reduce costs in textile operations and minimize environmental impact.

• Compatibility: Silicone softeners are compatible with various types of fabrics, making them
suitable for use on a wide range of textile materials.
Production of silicone softener:

The manufacturing of silicone based softener involves the conversion of chlorosilane to

silanol and polysiloxane through hydrolysis and polycondensation reaction respectively.
Mechanism of Silicone Softener

The mechanism of silicone softeners involves the formation of a flexible film on the surface
of the fabric. The process can be summarized as follows:

• Silicone softeners are typically supplied as macroemulsions, which are water-based

formulations containing large droplets of silicone oil. These macroemulsions are stable and
easy to handle.

• During application, the macroemulsion is applied to the fabric surface. The emulsion
droplets are distributed on the fabric, covering it uniformly.

• The treated fabric is then subjected to heat, typically at elevated temperatures of around
140-150 °C. This drying and curing process is essential for the softener to react and form a
flexible film.
Mechanism of Silicone Softener (continue..)

• At elevated temperatures, the silicone softener undergoes a crosslinking reaction. The

reactive groups of the silicone molecules form covalent bonds with each other and with the
hydroxyl groups present on the fabric's cellulose fibers.

• As a result of the crosslinking reaction, a flexible film is formed on the surface of the
fabric. This film effectively coats the fibers, reducing inter fiber and inter yarn friction,
leading to the softening effect.

• The flexible film and reduced friction between fibers create an exceptional soft handle,
providing a smooth and comfortable feel to the fabric.

• The silicone softener remains mostly on the fabric's surface without penetrating deeply
into the textile material. This property imparts water repellency to the treated fabric.
Orientation of silicone softener on fiber surface

Hydrophobic part which impart

hydrophobicity to treated
materials

Fig: Orientation of silicone softener on fiber surface

Examples of silicone softeners
Hydrophilic silicones
Hydrophilic silicone softeners are designed to impart hydrophilic properties to fabrics. Unlike
conventional silicone softeners that tend to make textiles hydrophobic, hydrophilic silicone
softeners are formulated to increase the wettability and water absorbency of fabrics.

These softeners contain hydrophilic groups, such as polyethylene oxide (PEO) or polypropylene
oxide (PPO) segments, either as side chains or part of the main polymer backbone. These
hydrophilic groups create sites on the silicone molecules that have a strong affinity for water,
allowing the softener to attract and absorb water molecules.

The use of hydrophilic silicone softeners is particularly beneficial for textiles like towels,
sportswear, and underwear, where water absorption and moisture management are essential for
user comfort. By improving the wettability of fabrics, these softeners enhance the textiles'
ability to absorb moisture, dry quickly, and maintain a comfortable feel against the skin.
Important softener characteristics
Softener Application recipe:

Softener = 20-25 g/L

PH = 4-5
Drying: 120-140° C, 2-3 minutes

Application process: Padding

Thank You