THEME-4

THINKERS, BELIEFS, AND BUILDINGS

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

(600 BCE – 600 CE)

THEME 4 - THINKERS, BELIEFS, AND BUILDINGS
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
(600 BCE – 600 CE)
 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings
▶This chapter discusses the major religious
developments in early India focusing on
Buddhism.
▶It also examines how these religious ideas
were compiled as texts and reflected in
architecture and sculpture.
Sources
▶Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical texts
▶Material remains including monuments and
inscriptions.
Mid-first millennium BCE is regarded as a turning point
in world history. Reasons….
 It was during this period that thinkers such as
Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in china, Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle in Greece, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in
India emerged.
 They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and
relationship between the humans and cosmic order.
 In India this was also the time when cities and kingdoms
were developing and social and economic life was
changing in a variety of ways in Ganga valley.
 These thinkers of India attempted to understand
these developments as well.
 The Sacrificial tradition
▶ The Rig Veda was compiled between c.1500 and 1000 BCE
and consists of hymns in praise of a variety of deities,
especially Agni, Indra and Soma.
▶ These hymns were chanted when the sacrifices were
performed and people prayed for cattle, sons, good health,
long life and other things.
▶ The Sacrifices earlier were performed collectively. Later
(c.1000 BCE-500 BCE onwards) some were performed by the
heads of households for well being of the domestic unit.
▶ More elaborate sacrifices, such as the rajasuya and
asvamedha were performed by chiefs and kings who
depended on Brahmana priests to conduct the rituals.
 New questions in the early period

▶Many people were curious about the

meaning of life, the possibilities of life
after death and rebirth. These issues
were hotly debated.
▶People outside the Vedic tradition
asked whether there was even a single
ultimate reality. People also began
speculating on the significance of the
sacrificial tradition
Debates and discussions-Kutagarashala

▶ There were as many as 64 sects or schools

of thought. Lively discussions and debates
were took place between the teachers and
these schools of thought.
▶ Kutagarashala were the places where the
debates of teachers, who tried to convince
one another and laypersons about the
validity of their philosophy, took place.
▶ Kutagarashala literally means hut with a
pointed roof or in groves where travelling
mendicants halted.
 Debates and discussions-Kutagarashala

▶ Mahavira and Buddha questioned

the authority of the Vedas.
▶ They emphasized on individual
agency.
▶ They suggested men and women could
strive to attain liberation from trials and
tribulations of worldly existence.
▶ This differed from the Brahmanical position
as they believed that individual’s existence
was determined by his or her birth in specific
caste or gender.
 MAHAVEERA(BC 540-468)
 Mahavira was preceded by 23 Thirthankaras. The thirthankaras are teachers
who guide men and women across the river of existence.
 1st Theerthangara-Rishabadeva
 23rd – Parswanatha
 24th – Mahaveera
 Birth – Kundalagrama, Musafarpur District,
in present Bihar, near Vashali.
 Father – Sidhartha, Jnathriya chief,
belongs to Kshathriya class.
 Mother – Thrisala, Lichavi princess.
 Yesoda – wife, and a daughter
 At the age of 30 –left home,

and after 12 years he attained knowledge.

 Passed away at the age of 72 – Pavapuri,
Bihar.
The message of Mahavira (Basic ideas of Jaina Philosophy)
 The main teachings of Mahavira are:
▶ The entire world is animated: even stones, rocks and water
have life.
▶ No-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals,
plants and insects.
▶ The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
▶ Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from
the cycle of karma.
▶ This can be attained only by renouncing the world;
therefore, monastic existence is a necessary condition of
salvation.
 The message of Mahaveera
▶ Mahaveera did not believe in the existence of God.
▶ He did not believe that God created and controlled the
whole universe.
▶ It was all waste of time to recite the mantras or perform
the sacrifices.
▶ The three essentials for good life were;
1. Right faith
2. Right knowledge
3. Right action
These three things were called the three jewels or
ratnas.
The message of Mahavira (Basic ideas of Jaina Philosophy)
 Jaina monks and nuns must take five vows.

1.To abstain from killing.

2.To abstain from
stealing. 3.To abstain
from lying.
4.To observe celibacy.
5.To abstain from
possessing property.
 The spread of Jainism

▶ The teachings of Mahavira were recorded by his

desciples.
▶ These were in the form of stories which could
appeal to ordinary people.
▶ Jaina scholars produced a wealth of literature in a
variety of languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit and
Tamil and preserved in libraries attached to
temples.
▶ Gradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India.
▶ Many stone sculptures connected with the Jain
traditions have been recovered from several sites.
 Gautama Budha (BC 563 – 483)
o Birth – Lumbini, near Kapilavasthu
in Nepal – BC 563.
o Father – Sudhodhana, king of Kapilavasthu,
Sakya family.
o Mother – Mahamaya, princess of Kosala.
o She died within one week of his birth
and cared by his mother’s sister
Gauthami.
o At the age of 16 – married with Yesodhara
and she gave birth to a son – Rahulan.
 Gauthama Budha (563 – 483 BC)
o Gauthama was not interested in married life.
o At the age of 29 he left home –
Mahaparithyaga.
o At the age of 35 he attained knowledge –
Great enlightenment.
o First sermon at Saranath near Banaras –
Dharmachakrapravarthana.
o He passed away in BC 483 at Kushinagar,
in Uthar Pradesh.
 The Buddha and the Quest for enlightenment
(The Life of Buddha)
 The traumatic incidents that changed the life of the Buddha.
 Buddha was one of the most influential teachers of his
time.
 His message spread across the subcontinent and
beyond-through central Asia to China, Korea and
Japan, and through SriLanka, across the seas to
Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
 Buddha was named Siddhartha at birth and was the son
of the chief of Sakya clan, Sudhodhana.
 He led a sheltered upbringing in the palace detached
from the harsh realities of life.
The traumatic incidents that changed the life of the Buddha.

▶ He undertook a journey into a city which was a

turning point in his life.
▶ He was deeply anguished (pained) when he saw
an old man, a sick man and a corpse (dead
body).

▶ It was at the moment that he realized

that decay of human body was inevitable.
▶ He saw a mendicant who had come to terms
with old age and disease and death and found
peace.
▶ Soon after, Siddhartha left the palace at
the age of 29 in search of truth.
Bodhi tree
The traumatic incidents that changed the
life of the Buddha.
▶ He explored many paths including
bodily mortification.
▶ He abandoned the extreme path and
meditated for several days and finally
attained enlightenment at the age of 35 and
came to be known as Buddha or the
enlightened one.
▶ For the rest of his life he taught dhamma
or the path of righteous living.
 Main teachings of Buddhism

▶Sources: Sutta Pitaka contains the

teachings of Buddha in the form of
stories. Few stories describe his
miraculous powers and others suggest
that Buddha tried to convince people
through reasons and persuasion
rather through displays of
supernatural power.
 Teaching of Budhism
▶ Four Noble Truths – Aryasathya
1. The world is full of sorrows and miseries
2. Desire is the cause of all sorrows and
miseries.
3. Sorrowing can be ended only by the
elimination of desires. When sorrow ends,
there is perfect bliss.
4. There must be a way to attain bliss and
end
desires. That was the noble
Ashtangamarga- Eightfold path
 Main teachings of Budhism
▶ The world is transient (anicca) and
constantly changing.
▶ It is also soulless (anatta) as there is
nothing permanent or eternal in it.
▶ Within this transient world, sorrow
(dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.
▶ It is by following the middle path between
severe penance and self- indulgence that
human beings can rise above these worldly
troubles.
Ashtangamarga
1. Right view
2. Right determination
3.Right speech
4.Right livelihood
5.Right action
6.Right exercise
7.Right memory
8.Right meditation
 Five moral rules to his disciples
1. Don’t commit violence.
2. Don’t covet the property of others.
3. Don’t speak falsely.
4. Don’t use intoxicants.
5. Let not one be unchaste.

Budha advised to overcome anger by

kindness, hatred by love and evil by good.
 Main teachings of Budhism
▶ In the early forms of Buddhism whether
or not God existed was irrelevant.
▶ Buddha regarded the social world as a
creation of humans rather than divine
origin and thus advised kings and gahapatis
to be humane and ethical.
▶ Buddhism emphasizes literally the
extinguishing of the ego and desires and
thus ends the suffering of those who
renounced the world.
Followers of the Buddha (The Buddhist Sangha)
o Buddha’s last words to his followers were: “Be
lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out
your own liberation”.
o The body of disciples of the Buddha or an
organization of monks is called sangha.
o Buddha founded a sangha. It was an organization
of monks who became teachers of dhamma.
o These monks lead a simple life possessing only the
essential requisites for survival, such as a bowl to
receive food once a day from the laymen.
 Followers of the Buddha (The Buddhist Sangha)
▶ As they lived on alms(Biksha), they were
known as bhikshus.
▶ Initially,only men were allowed into the sangha,
but later women also came to be admitted.
▶ The Buddha’s foster mother, Mahaprajapati
Goutami was the first woman to be included as
bhikshuni.
▶ Many women who entered the sangha
became teachers of dhamma and went on to
become theirs, or respected women who had
attained liberation.
 Followers of the Buddha (The Buddhist Sangha)
▶ The Buddha’s followers came from many social groups.
They included kings, wealthy men and gahapatis, and
also humbler folk; workers, slaves and crafts people.
▶ Once within the sangha, all were regarded as equal,
having shed their earlier social identities on becoming
bhikkus and bhikkunis.
▶ The Buddhist sangha which comprised of bhikkus and
bhikkunis functioned on the lines of ganas and sanghas
where consensus was arrived at based on discussions.
▶ If discussions failed to bring about harmony then
decisions were taken by a vote on that subject.
 Spread of Buddhism
• Buddhism grew rapidly both during the lifetime of the
Buddha and after his death.
• People were dissatisfied with the prevailing religions
and were confused by the social changes that were
occurring.
• Buddhism emphasized on the importance of conduct
and values rather than claims of superiority based on
birth.
• The emphasis was laid on metta (fellow feeling) and
karuna (compassion) especially for those who were
young and weaker than oneself. These were ideas that
drew men and women to Buddhism.
Budhist Shrines
A Budhist Temple at
Saranath
 Stupas
▶ Chaityas: Meaning
Certain places were regarded as sacred by the people in
the early times. Sites with special trees or unique rocks,
or sites of inspiring natural beauty with small shrine
attached to them were known as Chaityas.
Ajantha Chaitya
 The four sacred places:
▶ Buddhist literature describes places connected
with the life of Buddha.
These places are;
1. Lumbini- where he was born.
2. Bodh Gaya -where he attained
enlightenment.
3. Saranath -where he gave his first sermon.
4. Kushinagara-Where he attained nibbana.

▶ These four places were considered as sacred.

 Stupa: Meaning
▶ Mounds where relics of the Buddha such as his bodily
remains or objects used by him were buried were known as
stupas.
▶ It is known that Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s
relics to every important town and ordered the construction
of stupas over them.
▶ The stupas at Barhut, Sanchi and Saranath were built by the
second century BCE.
▶ Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of the stupas
give idea about the donations given by the kings, guilds,
bhikshus, bhikshunis and ordinary men and women for
building and decorating these monuments.
 Structure of Stupa
▶ Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap. The
structure of stupa originated as a simple circular
mound of earth called anda.
▶ Gradually, it developed into a more
complex structure.
▶ Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony like
structure that represented the abode(residence) of
the gods. Arising from the harmika was the mast
called the yashti surrounded by a cchatri or an
umbrella.
▶ Around the mound was a railing, separating the
sacred space from the secular world.
 The early Stupas

▶ The early stupas were built at Sanchi

and Burhut.
▶ They were plain except for the stone railings,
which resembled a bamboo or wooden fence
and the gateways, which were richly carved
and installed at the four cardinal points.
▶ The Mound of the stupas at Amravati and Shah-
ji-Dheri in Peshawar came to be elaborately
carved with sculptures compared to the early
stupas at Sanchi and Barhut.
Sanchi Stupa
 The fate of
Amravati
▶ The Mahachaitya at Amaravati is now just an
insignificant little mound, totally denuded of its
former glory.
 The following factors were responsible for the present fate of
Amaravati.
▶ In 1796, a local raja stumbled upon the ruins of the stupas at Amravati
using its stone to build a temple.
▶ In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur (Andhra Pradesh),
visited Amravati and collected several sculpture panels and took them
away to Madras.
▶ Colonel Colin Mackenzie also visited the site but his reports were not
published.
▶ By the 1850s, some of the slabs from Amravati had begun to be taken to
different places: to the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta, to the
India Office in Madras and some even to London.
▶ Many of these sculptures were seen adorning the garden of British
administrators.
Amaravathi Stupa
 View of H.H. Cole
On the preservation of ancient monuments
▶ He wrote: “It seems to me a suicidal and
indefensible policy to allow the country to be
looted of original works of ancient art.”
▶ He believed that museums should have plaster-cast
facsimiles of sculpture, whereas the originals
should remain where they had been found.
▶ Unfortunately, Cole did not succeed in convincing
the authorities about Amaravati, although his plea
for in situ (in the original place) preservation was
adopted in the case of Sanchi.
 The role of the Begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi
▶ Among the best preserved monuments of the time is the stupa at
Sanchi.
▶ In the 19th century, Europeans, first the French and later the English
were interested to take away the eastern gateway of the stupa to Paris
and London museums.
▶ Shajehan Begum of Bhopal took a wise decision to make plaster cast
copies to please Europeans. This resulted in the original remain at the
state.
The role of the Begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi
▶ The rulers of Bhopal, Shajehan Begum
and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum,
provided money for the preservation
of the ancient site.
▶ Museum was built; publication of the
volumes by John Marshall was funded.
▶ The Sanchi stupa as the most
important
Buddhist centre has helped in the
understanding of early Buddhism.
▶ Today it stands testimony to the successful
restoration of a key archaeological site
by the Archaeological Survey of India.
 Sculptures at Sanchi
▶ Stories in Stone
▶ The sculptures at Sanchi are scrolls of stories which depict scenes from
Jatakas.
▶ There were stories of Vessantara Jataka where the prince gives up everything
to the Brahmana and goes to live in forest with his wife and children.
 Symbols of worship
▶ The early sculpture does not have the image of
Buddha.
▶ Instead it uses symbols like an empty seat represents
meditation of the Buddha and stupa represented the
mahaparinibbana.
▶ There was the use of wheel which stood for the first
sermon delivered by Buddha at Saranath.
 Symbols of worship
▶ As it is obvious, such sculptures cannot be
understood literally.
▶ For example, the image of a tree does
not stand simply for a tree, but
symbolizes an event in the life of the
Buddha.
▶ Hence historians have to familiarize
themselves with the traditions of those who
produced these works of art to understand
such symbols.
▶ Some other sculptures at Sanchi were
not directly inspired by Buddhist ideas.
 Symbols of worship
▶ These include beautiful women known
as salabhanjika swinging from the edge
of the gateway, holding onto a tree.
▶ According to popular belief, the mere
touching of the tree by her would make
the tree to flower and bear fruit.
▶ Many people who turned to Buddhism
enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist
and even non-Buddhist beliefs,
practices and ideas.
Salabanjika
 Symbols of worship
▶ Many animals were also carved to create
lively scenes to attract viewers.
▶ For example elephant was carved which
signified strength and wisdom.
▶ Another figure found at Sanchi stupa is
that of Maya the mother of Buddha
or popular goddess Gajalakshmi.
▶ The figure of a serpent was found at
Sanchi. James Fergusson, a modern art
historian considered Sanchi as the centre of
tree and serpent worship.
Mahaveera-Bihar Stupa worship
Mahaveer - Shravanabalgola
Saranath Budha Dharmachakramudra
Saranath Budha
 New Religious Traditions
The development of Mahayana Buddhism
▶ By the first century CE, there were changes in
Buddhist ideas and practices.
▶ Early Buddhist teachings had given great
importance to self-effort in achieving nirvaana.
▶ Buddha was regarded as a human being .The
idea of Buddha as a saviour emerged.
▶ It was believed that he is the one who could
ensure salvation.
▶ Simultaneously, the concept of the
Bodhisatta also developed.
The development of Mahayana Buddhism
▶ Bodhisattas were perceived(seen) as deeply
compassionate(sympathetic) beings that
could help others to attain nirvaana.
▶ The worship of the images of the Buddha
and Bodhisattas became an important part
of this tradition.
▶ This new way of thinking was called
Mahayana-literally; the “greater vehicle”.
▶ The followers of Mahayana Buddhism
described the older tradition as Hinayana
or the “lesser vehicle”.
 Growth of Puranic Hinduism
▶ There were two important traditions that developed
within puranic Hinduism.
▶ 1. Vaishnavism is a form of Hinduism within which
Vishnu was worshipped as the principal deity. In the
case of Vaishnavism; cults were developed around the
various avatars or incarnations of Lord Vishnu.
According to Vaishnavism there are ten avatars of
Vishnu.
▶ Avatars were forms that the deity was believed to have
assumed in order to save the world whenever the
world was threatened by evil forces.
▶ Different avatars were popular in different parts of the
country
Avatars of Vishnu
 DASAVATHAR
S
1. Matsya
2. Kurma
3. Varaha
4. Narasimha
5. Vamana
6. Balarama
7. Parasurama
8. Srirama
9. Srikrishna
10. Kalki
Dasavatars
 Growth of Puranic Hinduism
▶ 2. Shaivism is a tradition within which Shiva
was regarded as the chief god. Shiva was
symbolized by the linga, although he was
occasionally represented in the form of human
figure too.
▶ Some of these deities were represented in
sculptures. All such representations depicted
a complex set of ideas about the deities.
▶ To understand the meaning of these sculptures
historians have to be familiar with the
Puranas.
 Growth of Puranic Hinduism
▶ Puranas contained stories about gods and
goddesses. They were written in simple Sanskrit
and were meant to be read aloud to
everybody.
▶ Puranas evolved through interaction amongst
people-priests, merchants, and ordinary men
and women who travelled from place to place
sharing ideas and beliefs.
▶ For example, Vasudeva-Krishna was
an important deity in the Mathura
region.
▶ Over centuries, his worship spread to other
parts of the country as well.
Trinity
 Growth of temple architecture
 When the stupas at sites such as Sanchi were
taking their present form, at the same time the
first temples to house images of gods and
goddesses were also being built.
 The early temple was a small square room, called
the garbhagriha, with a single doorway for the
worshipper to enter and offer worship to the
image.
 Gradually, a tall structure, known as sikhara, was
built over the central shrine.
 Temple walls were often decorated with
sculpture.
 Growth of temple architecture
▶ Assembly halls, huge walls, gateways and
arrangements for supplying water made the
later temples far more elaborate.
▶ One of the unique features of early
temples was that some of these were
hollowed out of huge rocks, as artificial
caves.
▶ An amazing example of the carving out of
an entire temple from a cave is that of
Kailasnatha temple at Ellora (Maharashtra).
Growth of temple architecture
Ellora – Kailasnath Temple
Barabar Cave
 Problems faced by the European scholars while
studying the sculptures.
 Firstly,the Europeans scholars were not
familiar with the local traditions and
beliefs. They were horrified by the images
of half human and half animals. They
considered the Indian sculptures inferior to
that of European sculptures from Greece
with which they were familiar. This was
because they compared the Indian sculpture
to the images of Greece with which they
were familiar.
 Problems faced by the European scholars while
studying the sculptures
 Secondly, the art historians used textual
traditions to understand the meaning of
sculptures. While this is a better strategy than
comparing the images found in India with
that of Greece but it was not always easy to
use. For example, to identify the sculpture
along a huge rock in Mahabalipuram, art
historians have to search through the
Puranas.
Mahanalipuram
Mahabalipuram
Mahabalipuram
Mahabalipuram
 Key words
▶ Hagiography: Hagiography is a biography of a
saint or religious leader.
▶ Thervadins: The followers of the older tradition
of Buddhism.
▶ Tripitaka: Literally Tripitaka means ‘Three
Baskets’. These were Buddhist texts namely Sutta
Pitaka,Vinayapitaka and Abhidhamma pitaka.
▶ Chaitya :Chaitya may also have been derived
from the word chita, meaning a funeral pyre, and
by extension a funerary mound.