Introduction

The Buddhavamsa mentioned total 29 Buddhas of which 27 preceded Gautam Buddha and Maitreya is future
Buddha to come. The current Kalpa has five Buddhas viz. Kakusandha, Koṇāgamana, Kassapa, Gautama and
Maitreya.
Buddhism, an anciеnt and profound spiritual tradition, еmеrgеd in thе Indian subcontinеnt around the 6th
century BCE., mainly due to rеligious dissatisfaction causеd by complеx rituals and class dominancе during
the Vedic period in India. It was founded by Siddhartha Gautama and prospered due to his simple and
practical techniques as well as his emphasis on equality. Buddhism is considered by many as a moral code or
a philosophy rather than an established religion due to its non-theistic faith without a god or deity to be
worshipped.
The essence of Budhha’s teaching, which was based on the philosophy of non-self, provides insights into
suffеring as well as its allеviation through Four Noblе Truths and Eightfold Paths, respectively. Concеpts
likе karma, thе Middlе Path, andnirvana undеrlinе its philosophy.

Factors that led to the Rise of Buddhism in India

The social and economic conditions of India in the 6th century B.C. were in such a way that the new strands of
socio-cultural institutions and practices were inevitable. The gross neglect of the social realities at that time led
to socio-religious awakenings, which resulted in the rise of Buddhism (and Jainism). The following are the
factors that led to the origin of Buddhism in India:
Complex religious practices of the Vedic era:
• In the Later Vedic period, Indian society had many complex rituals and sacrifices which were not
acceptable to the common people.
• For example, the sacrificial ceremonies were too expensive, and the superstitious beliefs and mantras
confused people.
Brahminical domination and its opposition:
• Brahmins declared themselves the upper castе, sееking supеriority and privileges, causing social
divisions.
• This lеd to tеnsions and rеsistancе, notably from Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, who strongly opposеd thеir
ritualistic dominancе, highlighting thе dеmand for alternative rеligious avеnuеs.
Nature and Philosophy of Buddhism:
• Doctrine of Equality: Buddhism's emphasis on equality appealed to the masses, providing an escape
from the stratified Varna system.
• Simple Language: Buddha's teachings were communicated in Pali, a language understood by common
people. This accessibility facilitated its rapid spread.
• Simple Doctrine: Buddhism's practical moralities, including the Middle Path, resonated with people
seeking guidance in their lives. This approach offered a comparatively easier route to spiritual liberation
compared to the intricate Vedic religion.
Economic factors:
• Urbanisation and the growth of non-violence as a value contributed to Buddhism's acceptance.
• The rising Vaishya class found Buddhism's emphasis on ethics and non-violence compatible with their
aspirations.
Geographical factors:
• Buddhism's еmеrgеncе in Magadha and Eastеrn Uttar Pradеsh was influenced by their intеllеctual
ambiancе, fеrtilе plains, and stratеgic towns.
• Sitеs likе Sarnath and Bodh Gaya еnrichеd spirituality.
• Monasteries and patronagе encouraged dеbatеs.
• Trade intеrsеctions and prior traditions aided idеa dissеmination, shaping Buddhism's growth.
Patronage:
• Buddha's personal appeal and teachings inspired commitment from rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru,
and Ashoka, which aided the rise and rapid expansion of Buddhism across India and even outside.
 Life of Buddha

• Gautama Buddha (566-486 BCE), also known as the “Light of Asia”, is the founder of
Buddhism. As per an inscribed Ashokan pillar, Siddhartha was born in the Lumbini grove
(modern Rummindei) in the Nepal Terai region. His father was Suddhodana, the chief of the
Sakya clan, and his mother was Maya, a princess of the Koliya clan.
• According to Ceylonise text, Buddha was called as Siddharth and his parents were Shuddhodana
and Mayadevi. He was born in Lumbini Nepal Tarai region in 563 BC on full moon day
Vaishaka (Buddha Purnima).His mother died soon after his birth and he was raised by Prajapati
Gautami.
Devadutt, son of Gautami and step brother of Siddharth, was a friend turned foe.
• At the age of 16, Siddhartha got married to Princess Yashodhara who gave birth to son Rahul
and lived a royal life away from the harsh realities of life.

The early life of Gautama was spent with ease and royal splendour, but it failed to attract the
mind of Gautama.
At the age of 29, Siddharth entered the city of Kapilvastu with his favourite chariot driver,
Chenna and his favourite horse, Kantaka. He came across 4 scenes:
(a) A man suffering due to old age.
(b) A man suffering due to disease.
(c) A dead body.
(d) A saint whose face was brimming with happiness.

For the first time in his life, he realised that a life of self-indulgence cannot give him ultimate
happiness.
Leaving Home in Search of Enlightenment (Mahabhinishkramana): The misery of human life
cast a deep spell on Gautama. In order to find a solution to the misery of mankind, he left home
at the age of 29.
He made up his mind to relieve mankind of misery. At the age of 29, on a full moon day, he
along with Chenna & Kantaka secretly left the palace. This is known as Mahabhinishkrama (The
Great Departure). He left his royal dress & shaved off his head. Kantaka died on the spot in
grief.
• Following this incident, he gave up the princely life and became a wandering ascetic, practising
extreme self-mortification for nearly six years. But all this hardship didn’t bring him any closer
to true happiness.

Siddharth became a disciple of two gurus- Alara Kama and Rudraka. They taught him Yoga &
Sankhyashastra. From a sage named Alara Kalama, he learnt the technique of meditation and the
teachings of the Upanishads. Since these teachings did not lead Gautama to final liberation, he left
him along with five Brahmana ascetics. He practised rigid austerities and resorted to different kinds of
self-torture to find the truth.
But he was not happy as his questions remained answered. He left and went to Uruvela (Gaya) at the
age of 35, sat for rigorous mediation on the banks of stream, Niranjana sat under a pipal tree (Bodhi
Tree) in the land of Samaga
• Ultimately, he realised that he must avoid both extremes of pleasure and pain to reach the ultimate
knowledge. This is what he calls a middle path. Sujata, daughter of Samaga offered him rice and
milk. His meditation lasted for 48 days. On the 49th day (Vaishaka full moon day), he got
enlightenment called Bodhi (knowledge above senses or intuitive knowledge). It is said that Indra sent
a demon, Mura, to disturb Siddharth but he remained unperturbed. Prithvi (Goddess of Earth) was the
witness to his enlightenment when he became Buddha. Since then he has been called as Buddha
(Awakened one). This event is called as Nirvana. Nirvana means extinction of the flame of desire.
• Thus, he accomplished enlightenment (Bodhi) under a banyan tree at Bodha Gaya in Bihar and
became a Buddha (the enlightened one) in 528BCE.

Siddhartha had 5 disciples to whom he delivered his first sermon at Sarnath in a deer park on
Dharmchakra parivarthana (how the wheel of dharma moves). The four noble truths and Noble
Eightfold Path became the core pillars of Buddhist teaching regarding the intrinsic suffering of
existence and how to deal with it. This was called Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. Kaundinya & 4
others became the first human beings to be taught Buddha ‘s teaching and become an arhat (spiritual
practitioner).
Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana, Sariputta and Ananda were also important disciples of the Buddha.
His first disciple was Mahakasyapa who became his student at the age of five. His first followers were
two merchants Tapussa and Bhallika.
In first sermon Buddha gave 4 Noble Truths or Aryasatya which is considered as core teachings in
Buddhism.
The Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed from stories found mainly in the Sutta
Pitaka. Buddha proved to be a practical reformer who took note of the realities of the day.
Four Noble Truths of Buddhism (Chatwari Arya Satyani)
1. Dukkha (suffering, incapable of satisfying, painful) is an innate characteristic of existence in the realm
of samsara
2. Samudaya (origin, arising) of this dukkha, which arises or “comes together” with taṇhā (“craving,
desire or attachment”)
3. Nirodha (cessation, ending) of this dukkha can be attained by the renouncement or letting go of this
taṇhā
4. Magga (path, Noble Eightfold Path) is the path leading to renouncement of tanha and cessation of
dukkha

The Noble Eightfold Path in Buddhism is the path of salvation given by Buddha. It is contained in the
fourth noble truth as a means to destroy suffering.
• Right View (Samyak-dristi)
• Right Aspirations (Samyka-sankalpa)
• Right Speech (Samyak-vac)
• Right Conduct (Samyak-karma)
• Right Livelihood (Samyag ajiva)
• Right Effort (Samyak vyayama)
• Right Awareness (Samyak Smrti)
• Right Concentration (Samyak Samadhi)

As promised Buddha now travelled to Magadh The kingdom of bimbisara. During this visit
Sariputta(who later founded Theravada tradition) and Mahamoggallana became Buddha’s disciples.
Buddha converted a bandit, Angulimal, and Amrapali a.k.a. Ambapali, the Court dancer of Ajatasatru
to Buddhism, Upali, a Barber and Anant Pindak, a rich merchant of that period. This represents
Buddhism was open for all, free from Varna System and free from stigma.
Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha comprised the five chief disciples.
His ten foremost disciples were completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and
Punna. Rahula was his son, who became disciple at the age of 7. Buddha’s parinirvāṇa happened at
Kuśinagara at the age of 80 years.

Buddha and his teaching (Dhamma) along with the first union of his five disciples (Sanhga) formed
the three gems (Triratna) of Buddhism.

The Three Marks of Existence: These are the characteristics of all phenomena that one should
understand and accept. They are impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), and non-self
(anatta).

The Four Sublime States: These are the positive mental qualities that one should cultivate and radiate
to all beings. They are loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), sympathetic joy (mudita), and
equanimity (upekkha).
By developing these states, one can foster harmony, empathy, altruism, and peace.

The Five Precepts: These are the basic ethical principles that Buddha laid down for his lay followers.
They are: to abstain from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and intoxication. They help us to
avoid harming ourselves and others, to respect life and property, to maintain purity and honesty and to
preserve clarity and awareness.

For rest of his life, Buddha travelled to many places and spread the Dhamma. He spent most of
his monastic life in Sravasti. His parinirvāṇa happened at Kuśinagara at the age of 80 years.

Early Patronage: Kings like Bimbisara and Ajatasatru (Magadha), Prasenajit (Kosala), and Udayana
(Kausambi) accepted his doctrines and became his disciples.

Two Most Important Questions focused by Buddha

Gautama Buddha is known to have concentrated on two most important questions about existence.
These were (1) How can we minimize suffering-both our own and that of others? and (2) How can we
attain inner peace?
Buddha’s analogy to a Great Physician
In the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha is often compared to a great physician, and his teachings are
compared to medicine. The teachings on the four noble truths in particular are related to a medical
diagnosis, as follows:
• Dukkha: identifying the illness and the nature of the illness (the diagnosis)
• Dukkha Samudaya: identifying the causes of the illness (the etiology)
• Dukkha Nirodha: identifying a cure for the illness (the prognosis)
• Magga: recommending a treatment for the illness that can bring about a cure (the prescription)

After preaching many years Buddha died in 483 BC at Kushinagar U.P. He achieved mahaparinibbana
or mahaparinirvana (final liberation), i.e. death in Kushinagar.

Major events and places associated with Buddha's Life and Teachings
These events are central to the story of the Buddha and the development of Buddhism as a religion
and philosophy. They are often depicted in Buddhist art and serve as inspiration for followers of the
religion.
Symbols Associated with Places
Lotus, Bull and Birth- The Buddha was born. Lumbini
Elephant
Horse Mahabhinishkramana (Renunciation)- Buddha left his palace and Kapilvast
renounced his luxurious life in order to seek spiritual enlightenment. u
Bodhi tree Nirvana/Sambodini (Enlightenment)- After several years of spiritual Bodh
practice, the Buddha achieved enlightenment, or Nirvana, under a Bodhi Gaya
tree
Wheel Dharmachakra Pravartana (First Sermon)- The Buddha's first sermon Sarnath
was delivered to a group of five ascetics in the Deer Park
Stupa Mahaparinirvana (Moksha)- Buddha died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar, Kushinag
the capital of the Mallas (Mahajanapada). ar

Other associated places:

• Shravasti: Buddha spent 24 monsoons and gave several teachings. It is located in present-day
Uttar Pradesh, India.
• Sankassa: Buddha descended from heaven after preaching to his mother. It is located in present-
day Uttar Pradesh, India.
• Rajgir: Buddha spent several years and gave many teachings. It is located in present-day Bihar,
India.
• Vaishali: It is the place where Buddha gave several teachings and delivered the Mahaparinirvana
Sutra. It is located in present-day Bihar, India.
Buddhist Ideas and Philosophy

Key ideas of Buddha’s Teachings and beliefs of Buddhism:

• Middle path: An individual should pursue the middle path, and both severe asceticisms, as well
as a luxurious life, are to be avoided.
• The Idea of Karma and Rebirth:
○ Buddhism laid great emphasis on the law of ‘karma’.
○ According to this law, Karma refers to action driven by intention, which leads to future
consequences. All Karma creates a tendency to produce an effect. Therefore, all actions
have consequences.
○ As per this philosophy, “We are born again and again to reap the fruits of our ‘karma’. If
an individual has no sins, he is not born again.”
• Existence of god:
○ The Buddha neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God. He was more concerned
about the individual and his actions.
• Existence of soul:
○ He did not involve himself in fruitless controversy regarding the soul (atman) and Brahma,
which raged strongly in his time.
○ Instead, Buddha emphasised the spirit of love. Love could be expressed towards all living
beings by following ‘ahimsa’ (non-killing).
• Nirvana:
○ The Buddha preached ‘nirvana’, the ultimate goal in the life of a man.
○ It means the shedding of all desires and ending of suffering, which finally leads to freedom
from rebirth. By a process of elimination of desire, one can attain ‘nirvana’.
○ Unlike the emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in the Vedic religion, he laid emphasis on
the moral life of an individual.
• The Doctrine of Dependent Origination (Pratitya-Samutpada): It is central to Buddhist
philosophy and is connected to the second noble truth – suffering has a cause (Dukkha
Samudaya). According to this principle, all events have a cause, which means this suffering, too,
has a cause. The principal cause of Dukha is our ignorance, which creates a harmful Karmic
effect on us, pulling us into a cycle of birth and rebirth.
• The doctrine of Madhyama Pratipada or Middle path: Buddha advises us to follow a middle path
betweentwo extremes of indulgence in worldly pleasure and the practice of strict abstinence and
asceticism.
• Non-Self (Anatta):
○ Buddhism sees the self not as permanent but as constantly changing five
aggregates (skandhas) - body, sensations, perceptions, mental formations and
consciousness.
○ Clinging to these aggregates as unchanging causes suffering (dukkha).
○ Realising their impermanent nature frees one from mistaken notions of a fixed self.
• Origin of the world:
○ The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of
divine origin.
○ Therefore, he advised kings and Gahapatis to be humane and ethical. The individual effort
was expected to transform social relations.
• Focus on Ethics: Buddha was concerned about ethical living, applicable to all sections of people.
• On Moksha:
○ The Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape
from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and nibbana, literally the extinguishing
of the ego and desire – and thus end the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the
world.
• Dhamma:
○ In Buddhism, Dhamma refers to the teachings of Buddha, the universal truths or ultimate
reality revealed by him and the path one must follow to attain enlightenment.
• Three Jewels:
○ Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha constitute the three jewels or refuges. Taking refuge in them
is the formal process of becoming a Buddhist by accepting Buddha as the teacher,
Dhamma as the teaching and Sangha as the community.

According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were: “Be lamps unto yourselves
as all of you must work out your own liberation.”

Buddhahood and Cycle of Buddhas

In Buddhism, thеrе is a bеliеf in thе cyclе of Buddhas, which refers to thе idea that thеrе havе
bееn and there will be many enlightened bеings or Buddhas throughout thе agеs.
• Krakucchanda was bеliеvеd to bе thе first Buddha of thе currеnt cosmic agе known as
Bhadrakalpa. His tеachings еmphasizеd moral conduct, mеditation and spiritual powеrs.
• Kankamuni was thе sеcond Buddha of Bhadrakalpa, born into a Brahmin family. His
tеachings focused on cultivating compassion and mеditation.
• Kasyapa was the third Buddha, who strеssеd еthical conduct and wisdom.
• Sakyamuni, also known as Gautama Buddha, was thе fourth and most rеnownеd Buddha
of Bhadrakalpa. His tеachings formеd thе basis of Buddhism, cеntеring around thе Four
Noblе Truths and Noblе Eightfold Path as thе way to еnlightеnmеnt.
• Maitrеya is a bodhisattva considеrеd to bе thе futurе Buddha of the next cosmic agе.
Believed to reside in Tusita hеavеn, he will be reborn on Earth and achieve еnlightеnmеnt
whеn Sakyamuni Buddha's tеachings arе forgottеn.
• The concеpt of multiple Buddhas across timе convеys the cyclical and еtеrnаl nature of
еnlightеnmеnt in Buddhism. Sakyamuni Buddha is thе kеy figurе in our currеnt еra.

Other ideas of Buddha:

1. He believed in trans-migration of souls (Life after death).
2. He believed in Karma Siddhanta (For every action, there is an opposite reaction).
3. On the existence of God, Buddha remained agnostic.

Sanghas were the religious orders found by Buddha. Buddhist Sangha is considered to be the
oldest Church in world history. Slaves, insolvents and diseased persons were not allowed to
enter Sangha. However at the insistence of Ananda, Buddha allowed women into Sangha. The
Sangha had a prescribed code of conduct:
• Every monk (Bhikshu) must have one pair of yellow robes, a needle, a piece of string, a
begging bowl.
• Meals were to be had only once a day.
• Monks were to rest only in the rainy seasons.
• Monks were not to commit 64 types of crimes i.e. Pathimokshas.
Bhikshus were the lifetime members of the Buddhist Sangha. Upasaka were the followers of
Buddhism.
After the death of Buddha, four Councils had met to resolve several issues regarding Buddhism,
its teachings and regarding the code of conduct within the Sanghas.

Buddhism еmеrgеd as a significant rеsponsе to thе rеligious and social complеxitiеs of anciеnt
India. Siddhartha Gautama's tеachings offеrеd a middlе path, еmphasizing compassion, thе Four
Noblе Truths, and thе Eight-Fold Path. Thе rеligion's appеal lay in its simplicity, practical
moralitiеs, and focus on individual transformation.

Buddhist Philosophy

• Idealism: Two sources of valid knowledge ; a) Perception and b) Inference.

• Doctrine of dependent origination (Pratityasamutpada): Central theory of Buddhist Philosophy.
It tells us that in the empirical world dominated by the intellect, everything is relative,
conditional, dependent, subject to birth and death and therefore impermanent.
• Theory of momentariness (Kshanabhanga or Impermanence): It tells that everything in this
world is merely a conglomeration of perishable qualities. Thus according to it, things that can
produce effect exist and whatever can not produce effect has no existence.
Buddhist councils and the Development of Buddhism

Buddha called himself Tathagat which means The one who has thus gone, The one who has thus come
i.e The one who has thus never gone.
After the death of Buddha, four Councils had met to resolve several issues regarding Buddhism, its
teachings and regarding the code of conduct within the Sanghas. After the death of Buddha Buddhist
Sangha was le by his disciple Mahakashyapa. It was also decided that in future those who will led the
Sanghawill be known as Maitreya.
First Buddhist Council took place in 483 B.C. in Sattapani cave at Rajagriha. It was presided by
Mahakashyapa and conducted by Ajatshatru, the King of Magadh. Chairperson was Mahakashyapa.
Ananda recited Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings ) and Upali recited Vinaypitaka (code of conduct for
Sanghas and monks).

2nd Buddhist Council was held in 383 B.C at Vaishali. It was presided by Sabakami and patronised by
Kalasoka, the greatest king of Sisunaga dynasty. However, In the 2nd Buddhist council, the ‘elders’
wanted to purify the Buddhist movement by introducing strict rules of monastic life. They were not
satisfied with the Vinaya Pitaka formulated in the first Buddhist council. The dispute was on 10 Points
such as storing salt in horn, eating after midday, eating once and going to villages for alms, eating sour
milk after one’s meal etc. It was not settles and Buddhism sects appeared for the first time. The
subgroups were Sthaviravada, Mahasanghika and Sarvastivada.
Here Buddhism got divided into two sects: Mahasanghikas who favoured changes (Liberal) and
Sthviravadins /
Theravadins who advocated no changes and were believers/followers of elders (Conservative).
Sthavirvada was the name given to the “Doctrine of Elders”. In the 3rd Buddhist council, held by the
Sthavirvadins, the Abhidhamma Pitaka was formed, which contained the philosophical doctrine of
Buddhism.

In between 383 BC to 250BC there was further division in Buddhism. 18 more sects came into the
picture.

Third Buddhist Council was held in 250 B.C. at Pataliputra and was presided over by Moggaliputra
Tissa, prince of Ceylon. It was conducted by Ashoka, the greatest of the Mauryan kings. Tissa
composed Abhidharma Pitaka that dealt with Buddhist philosophy. The teachings of Buddha which
were under two baskets were now classified in 3 baskets as Abhidhamma Pitaka was established in
this council, and they were known as “Tripitaka”. It also tried to settle all the disputes of Vinaya
Pitaka.
Ashoka decided to take Buddhism outside India as such he sent many Buddhist Missions to Central
Asia, East Asia, South East Asia, etc. He sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to spread
Buddhism in Sri Lanka.n

Another faction of Buddhists, Sarvastivadins, held the 4th Buddhist council and adopted Sanskrit to
create their literature, replacing the Pali language. They created a Sanskrit version of Abhidhamma
Pitaka and a Mahavibhasa(commentary on Abhidhamma)( Encyclopaedia of Buddhism)
Fourth Buddhist Council was held in first Century A.D. at Kundalavana in Srinagar. It was presided
by Vasumitra and Aswaghosa and patronized by Kanishka, greatest ruler of the Kushans. During this
Council Buddhism got divided into:
Mahayana meaning Great Journey of Buddha’s soul (Greater Vehicle)
Hinayana meaning Less/ Short Journey of Buddha’s soul (Lesser Vehicle)

Another Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Tambapanni (one name of Sri Lanka) at Aloka Lena
under the patronage of Vattagamani-Abaya. However, most scholars agree that this was not eligible to
be called a Council as it was not under a king but a local chieftain. This council is also related to the
cruel policy of Vattagamani-Abaya towards Jains, as it is said that a jain premises was destroyed and a
Mahayan temple was built.

Mahayanis (founded by Acharya Nagarjuna) believed that they would be born again and again; - while
Hinayanis belived Buddha would not be born again. The gap of 250 years (between the 3rd and the
4th Council) was utilized maximum by Brahmans. They brought many changes in the religion.
Brahmans introduced the incarnation system, made Buddha the 9th Avatar. Hinduism brought about
the concept of future lives of Buddha.

Fifth Buddhist Council: 1871

Fifth Buddhist Council took place in 1871 under the patronage oKf ing Mindon in Mandalay, Burma.
It was presided by Jagarabhivamsa, Narindabhidhaja, and Sumangalasami. The idea was to recite all
the teachings of the Buddha and examine them systematically if any of them was dropped or altered.

Sixth Buddhist Council : 1954

The Sixth Buddhist Council was held in 1954 in Burma at Kaba Aye, in Yangoon under the patronage
of Burmese Government led byPrime Minister U Nu. Construction of Maha Passana Guha, which is
very much similar to India’s Sattapanni Cave where the first Buddhist Council had been held, was
authorized by the government.
It was aimed to preserve the genuine Dhamma and Vinaya Pitaka. It held under the presidency of
Mahasi Sayadaw and Bhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa. 500 buddhist scholars from 8 countries
participated in this council.
 Buddhist Literature

Tripitaka or Three Baskets is a traditional term used for various Buddhist scriptures. It is known as
pali Canon in English. The three pitakas are Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• Theravāda school Tripitaka is the only complete Tripitaka preserved in Pali.
• Sārvāstivāda is a near complete Tripitaka written in Sanskrit and preserved in Sanskrit, Chinese and
Tibetan.
• The 7 books of Abhidhammapitaka survive in Chinese Translation.
• Dhammaguptaka tripitaka is written in Gandhari.
• Other versions of Tripitaka are Mahasanghika, Mahisasaka, Mūlasārvāstivāda & Kāśyapīya

Sutta Pitaka
It contains over 10 thousand suttas or sutras related to Buddha and his close companions. This also
deals with the first Buddhist council which was held shortly after Buddha’s death, dated by the
majority of recent scholars 483BC, under the patronage of king Ajatasatru with the monk
Mahakasyapa presiding, at Rajgir.
Its sections are:
1. Digha Nikaya:Comprises the “long” discourses in 34 long sutras.
2. Majjhima Nikaya:Comprises the “middle-length” discourses in 152 sutras.
3. Samyutta Nikaya: Comprises the “connected” discourses in over 2800 sutras.
4. Anguttara Nikaya: Comprises the “numerical” discourses in over 9600sutras.
5. Khuddaka Nikaya: Comprises the “minor collection” It has 15-17 booklets. (Thai 15. Sinhali 17 &
Burmese 18 booklets).
Vinaya Pitaka
The subject matter of Vinay Pitaka is the monastic rules for monks and nuns. It can also be called as
Book of Discipline.
• Suttavibhanga: The basic code of Monastic discipline is known as It contains 227 rules for fully
ordained Monks called bikkhus (Maha vibhanga) and 311 rules for fully ordained nuns called
Bikkhunis (Bikkhuni Vibhanga) They are contained in Suttavibhanga, one of the parts of Vinay
Pitaka.
• Khandhaka:Khandhaka is the second book of Vinay Pitaka. It has two volumes viz. Mahavagga and
Cullavagga. Mahavagga deals with the awakening of Buddha and his great disciples. Cullavagga deals
with the first and second Buddhist councils and establishments of community of Buddhist nuns and
rules for Buddhist community.
• Parivara: Parivara is the last book of Vinaya Pitaka. It covers the summary of analysis of rules
mentioned in first two books of Vinay Pitaka. Its is latest book and seems to be later than the Fourth
Buddhist Coincil in Ceylon. It also contains questions and answers.
Abhidhammapitaka
Abhidhammapitaka deals with the philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism appearing in the suttas.
However, it does not contain the systematic philosophical treatises. There are 7 works of
Abhidhamma Pitaka which most scholars agree that don’t represent the words of Buddha himself. The
7 books are
1. Dhammasangani: It contains a matrix which lists the classification of Dhammas or ideas.
2. Vibhanga :It has 18 chapters dealing with different teachings of Buddhism. It is in 3 volumes and third
volume is in question answer format.
3. Dhatukatha:It has a matrix and various topics.
4. Puggalapannatti: It has a matrix which deals with the list of the persons.
5. Kathavatthu:It contains the debates and commentary on thoese debates.
6. Yamaka :Yamaka has questions in pairs and understanding.
7. Patthana :It also contains the questions and answers.

Jatakas – Birth Stories of the Buddha

The Jatakas are a collection of 547 poetic tales in Pali depicting previous incarnations and deeds of the
Buddha. They are considered part of the Khuddaka Nikaya, one of the main textual divisions of the
Pali Sutta Pitaka. The Jatakas have parallels to folklore and fables, and were likely compiled between
the 3rd century BCE and 4th century CE. They provide insight into the Bodhisattva’s path to
enlightenment.

Milinda Panha – Dialogues between King Menander and Monk Nagasena

The Milinda Panha records conversations in Pali verse between the Indo-Greek king Menander I and
the Buddhist sage Nagasena, dating to around the 2nd century BCE. It touches on questions of
doctrine, philosophy and practice, representing an early stage of Indian Buddhist thought. It is one of
the few ancient Buddhist texts available only in a single Pali manuscript from Sri Lanka.

Dipavamsa – The Island Chronicle

The Dipavamsa, or “Chronicle of the Island,” is believed to be the oldest historical record of Sri
Lanka, composed around the 3rd-4th century CE. Written in Pali verse, it documents the arrival of
Buddhism and details Sri Lankan Buddhist history up to the reign of King Mahasena. It also discusses
arrival of relics like the Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka and legends of the visits of Buddha himself.

Mahavamsa – The Great Chronicle

Authorship of the Mahavamsa is attributed to an otherwise unknown monk called Mahānāma by the
Mahavamsa-tika. The Mahavamsa, meaning “Great Chronicle,” is an epic poem in Pali covering the
early history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and India. Beginning in the 3rd century CE and expanded over
the centuries, it covers the lineages of Sinhalese kings along with tales of Buddhism’s spread. It has
been profoundly influential in Sinhalese national identity and the modern ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka.

Mahavastu
Mahavastu means the “Great Event”. It’s a work in prose and verse and is written in Sanskrit, Pali and
Prakrit. It details the miracles & earlier lives of Buddha. The Mahāvastu (Sanskrit for "Great Event"
or "Great Story") is a canonical text of the MahāsāṃghikaLokottaravāda school of Early
Buddhism which was originally part of the school's Vinaya pitaka.The Mahāvastu is a composite
multi-life hagiography of the Buddha Shakyamuni. Its numerous textual layers are held by scholars to
have been compiled between the 2nd century BCE and 4th century CE. It contains Jakata and
Avadana tales. It is written in mixed Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit. It is said to compiled between 2nd
century BC-4th century AD.

Buddha Charita
Buddha Charita is an epic style Sanskrit work by Ashavaghosa. Dharmaraksa who is known to have
translated many works of Buddhism in Chinese, translated this work in Chinese in 420AD. It mainly
deals with Buddha’s Life. Asvaghosa also wrote a Sanskrit Drama “Sariputra Prakaran” which deals
about Sariputta or Sariputra the disciple of Buddha.
First Sanskrit scholar in Buddhism was Aswaghosa. He wrote ‘Buddha Charitra’. It is the first Kavya
in Sanskrit literature. All the nine Rasas are there in it. Sundaranandana and Seriputraprakarana, found
in Khotan in Central Asia, are the other prominent Buddhist texts.

Mahāvibhāsa Śāstra which means Great Book of alternatives or Great Book of Options
Its an early Sanskrit work on Buddhism. Vibhasa means a compendium and has 3 prongs. It is
attributed to vasumitra and deals with not only Buddhism but also Vaisheshika and Samkya
philosophies. It is said to be written around 150CE. It contains discussions about other non-Buddhist
philosophies also. It is essentially a Mahayan text.

Lalitavistara
In Sanskrit Lalit is a Lotus. Lalitvistara is a Sanskrit text that deals with the biography of Buddha.
Vaidya believed that the finished Sanskrit text dated to the 3rd century AD. The text is also said to be
a compilation of various works by no single author and includes materials from the Sarvastivada and
the Mahayana traditions.

Divyavadana
Divyavadana means divine tales. It contains anthology in 38 stories and is a Sanskrit text which deals
with Mauryan and Sunga History. The Asokavadana is a story in it which deals with the legends of
Asoka.

Udanavarga
Udanavarga is an early Buddhist Sanskrit text. It has verses attributed to Buddha and his disciples.
collection of verses from the Buddhist canon compiled by Dharmatrāta being the Northern Buddhist
version of Dhammapada

Udana
Udana is a Pali text included there in the Sutta Khuddaka Nikaya. It contains the story of “Blind men
and Elephant”.

Bodhi Vamsa
Bodhi Vamsa is a mix Sanskrit Pali text which was composed by Upatissa under the rule of Mahinda
IV of Sri Lanka in 10th century AD. It describes the arrival of branch of Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka and
many other things which mentioned in Mahavamsa.

Abhidharmamoksha: It is written by Vasubandhu and is a widely respected text. It is written in

Sanskrit. It contains discussion on Abhidharma.

Visuddhimagga: It is written by Buddhagosha in 5th century. It is a text of Theravada doctrine. It

contains discussions on various teachings of Buddha.
 Buddhist Scholars

The most important turning point in the expansion of Buddhism in India was the emergence and
conversion of Asoka the Great (304–232 BC). He embraced Buddhism after 8 years of his coronation,
he became a Buddhist and made it his state religion in 260 BC. He convened the third Buddhist
council, which was held in Pataliputra in the presidency of Moggaliputta Tissa. He launched a
vigorous campaign to propagate Buddhism which could be called Asoka’s Dhamma.

Aśvaghosa
• Aśvaghosa is the Greatest Indian Poet Prior to Kalidasa. He is known as first Sanskrit Dramatist of the
World. His epics rivalled the contemporary Ramayana. He wrote Buddhist texts in Classical Sanskrit.
• He was the court writer and religious advisor of Kushana king Kanishka. His main works are
Buddhacharita, Mahalankara (Book of Glory), Saundaranandakavya (details the life of Nanda) and
Sauriputraprakaran

Nagarjuna
• Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamika school of Mahayan Buddhism. He was contemporary of
Satavahana King Gautamiputra. He was born in a Brahmin family in Nagarjunkonda in modern
Andhra Pradesh.
• Due to his birth in Brahmin family and later conversion in Buddhism, it can be justified that his early
work was in Sanskrit and not in Pali or Hybrid Sanskrit.
• Most important work is Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, which means Fundamental Verses on the Middle
Way. His theory is also known as Shunyavad “emptiness”.
Acharya Nagarjuna (The Einstein of India). He wrote the following treatises:
• Madhyamika Siddhanta)
• Madhyamika Sutralankara Buddhist Philosophy
• Saddharma Pundareeka
• Stuhul Lekha was a letter by him to his friend King Yagnasri Satakarni (of Satavahanas).
• Rasarainakara which deals with chemical properties.

Asanga & Vasubandhu

• Both were half brothers and proponents of Yogachara and Abhidhamma They were from modern
Peshawar area in Pakistan. Most important work of Vasubandhu was Abhidharmamoksha (First
dictionary on Buddhist philosophy).

Buddhaghosa
• Buddhaghosa lived the 5th century AD and is known to be one of the greatest Pali scholar. His name
means “Voice of Buddha”. Considered to be most important commentator of the Theravada.
• He is said to have gone to Sri Lanka from India’s Magadha and settled in Anuradhapura. The most
important work is Visuddhimagga.
Buddhaghosa – wrote Vasuddimaga (Contribution of Maga). He was the Commander of
Chandragupta Vikramaditya II.

Dignāga or Dinnaga
• He is considered to be the founder of Buddhist logic.
Dignaga was the first to introduce theory of logic (Tarkashastra) in India. He is also called ‘Kant of
India’ and he wrote Pramanasamuchchaya.

Candrakīrti or Chandrakirti
• He was a disciple of Nagarjuna and a scholar at the Nalanda University. Prasannapadā is his main
work which means happy words or clear words

Dharmakirti
• Dharmakirti lived in 7th century AD and was primary theorist of Buddhist Sankya. He was a teacher
at the Nalanda University and a poet. He has written Seven Treatises on Valid Cognition. He has been
called “Kant of India’.
 Sects of Buddhism

• Buddhist texts mention about 64 sects or schools of Buddhism. Teachers travelled from place to place,
trying to convince one another and laypersons about the validity of their philosophy.
• Debates took place in the Kutagarashala – literally, a hut with a pointed roof or in groves where
travelling mendicants halted.
• If a philosopher succeeded in convincing one of his rivals, the followers of the latter also became his
disciples. So, support for any sect could grow and shrink over time.

After Buddha's death, his followers interpreted his teachings in different ways, leading to doctrinal
divisions and the emergence of distinct Buddhist sects.
• The earliest division happened during the 2nd Buddhist Council at Vaishaliaround 383
BCE when the monastic order divided into:
○ The Sthaviravadins who adhered strictly to the Vinaya code of monastic discipline and
○ The Mahasanghikas advocated more relaxed norms.
• Around the 1st century CE, after the Fourth Buddhist Council under Kanishka, Mahayana
Buddhism emerged as a departure from Hinayana Buddhism.
○ Mahayana followers formed a distinct sect, worshipping Buddha images as divine
beings, unlike non-theistic Hinayana.
• In the 7th century, Vajrayana Buddhism emerged as a tantric branch of Mahayana. As Buddhism
spread via trade networks, localised adaptations led to variants like Tibetan, Chinese and Zen
Buddhism.
• However, core teachings like the Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path and Non-Self remained
common across sects. Divisions were based more on differing practices and interpretations
rather than principles.

Although followers of each believe otherwise, they all recognize they are a part of Ekayana (“One
Vehicle” or “One Path”) in that they all support Buddha’s overarching goal and work to spread peace
and compassion in the world.

According to objective standards, none are seen as more legitimate than the others, nor are the
numerous minor schools that have emerged.

An Arahant is an awakened being, one who has destroyed desire, anger, and ignorance and has
acquired Nibbana (Nirvana) in this life from personal experience.

The Buddha was also an Arahant. However, unlike the other Arahants, the Buddha discovered the
path himself, without instructions. In other words, the Buddha was the first Arahant.
Shortly after the death of the Buddha, 500 Arahants gathered and formed the 1st council
meeting led by the Venerable Maha Kassapa, the oldest among them, to repeat the teachings of
the Buddha and record them in memory.

In the first years after the Buddha’s death there were still disciples who had awakened directly
under his guidance.

○ Halfway through the 4th century BC, less than 100 years after the death of the Buddha,
discord arose within the Sangha (the order of monks).
○ The primary cause is not clear. Probably there was a difference of opinion about the
Vinaya, the moral rules of conduct for monks, but even that is not certain.

The Mahasanghikas, seem to have been in favor of less moral rules and held the opinion
that an Arahant still had mental limitations, because this is what could be seen in many so-
called Arahants, and the ultimate goal for a monk should therefore be to become a Buddha.

The Sthaviravadins, seem to have wanted more or stricter moral rules and stuck to
arahantship as the ultimate goal of the Buddha’s path, declaring that those who claimed to
be Arahants but still had mental (or mainly moral) limitations were not Arahant at all.

Theravada Buddhism
Theravada school of Buddhism claims to be the oldest school and to maintain Buddha’s original
vision and teachings. It is also known as Hinayana (lesser vehicle) sometimes.

• Theravada, the school of the Elders, began to take shape around 250 BC through the original
disciples of Buddha.
• It is considered the most orthodox form of Buddhism and has followers mainly in Southeast
Asia, especially in Thailand, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka.
• The vipassana movement (mindfulness) is a modern-day school within Theravada Buddhism.
• Theravada concentrates on the original teachings of Buddha- the four noble truths and the eight-
fold path.
• They follow strict monastic life of meditation to attain nirvana.
• They do not worship buddha as a deity but rather believe in his teachings of karma and
meditation.
• From 268 to 232 BCE Asoka the Great of the Maurya Dynasty ruled over almost the entire
Indian subcontinent.

He converted to Buddhism and focused on ahimsa, non-violence. Asoka is seen as a great,

tolerant, and respectful leader, an example for kings that came after him.

He spent his wealth on his people and the Sangha. With this, however, he also created a
problem.

○ Greedy and immoral people infiltrated the Sangha to take advantage of his charity.
○ They were not interested in liberation, only in the offerings provided and the associated
status, and therefore held wrong views, which resulted in a decrease in the respect for the
Sangha.
○ When Asoka heard of this corruption, he organized a 3rd council meeting in 250 BCE to
purify Buddhism and record the true Dhamma.

The Venerable Moggaliputtatissa chaired the 9-month-long 3rd council meeting.

The Venerable Moggaliputtatissa belonged to the Vibhajjavada school, the doctrine of

analysis descended from the Sthaviravadins.
The Dhamma that was recorded during the 3rd council meeting and supported by Asoka
was the Tipitaka (the three baskets).

○ The followers of this movement called themselves Theriya’s ‘elders’ and in this way,
Theravada was born.

○ Since then, the Pali Canon, the Pali version of the Tipitaka, has existed. Since the 3rd
Council meeting of 250 BCE, no more teachings have been added or removed from the
main texts.
○ Buddhagosa wrote the Visuddhimagga, a monumental summary of the Tipitaka.
○ Asoka’s son, Mahinda traveled to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhist teachings, and Theravada
Buddhism, flourished in Sri Lanka.

Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana (Great Vehicle) school of Buddhism is a group of religious practices that emphasizes
the bodhisattva path and upholds the Mahayana sutras.

According to contemporary researchers, these writings originate from the first century BCE.

It was founded 400 years after Buddha’s death, probably inspired by the early Mahasanghika
ideology, and was streamlined and codified by the sage Nagarjuna (c. 2nd century CE), the central
figure of the school.

Mahayana schools often maintain that there are now numerous Buddhas who are accessible and that
they are transcendental or supramundane creatures, in contrast to Theravada and other early schools.

Mahayana Buddhism is said to have split off from Theravada in the belief that it was too self-centered
and had lost its true vision; this school also claims it holds to the Buddha’s original teaching.

• The Mahasangikas around the 2nd council meeting (4th century BCE) began to find the goal of
becoming an Arahant inadequate.
• This opened the way to Buddhahood as an alternative, which seems to have been the first point
of departure.
• Around the 3rd council meeting in 250 BCE. there were 18 different Buddhist schools.
They believed that Buddha had infinite compassion and hence would not enter nirvana where no
good for others can be done. Therefore, there must be some aspect of the Buddha that is still
present in the here and now as an expression of his infinite compassion.

○ They revered and worshipped Buddha as a god, hence deification is observed in this sect.
○ They believed Buddhahood is for everyone, hence they were more liberal and inclusive
than the earlier schools.
○ Even though they considered Buddha a divine being, they also believed that every person
is a potential Buddha. The emphasis is on striving for the enlightenment of all beings and
not only yourself.
○ They attained salvation through worshipping Buddha and following his core teachings.
The Mahayana school spread around Central Asia via the silk route around the 1st century
CE. It is followed largely in China, Korea, and Japan.

Vajrayana Buddhism
Vajrayana school of Buddhism developed, largely in Tibet, in response to what was perceived as too
many rules in Mahayana Buddhism.

The Vajrayana, as a relatively late branch from the Mahayana, seems to have started somewhere
around the 5th century CE. It is also known as Tantrayana or Tantric Buddhism.

• Tantra is a combination of mantras (protective verses), actions, and visualizations that accelerate
the path to enlightenment.
• Its origins lay in the changing environment of mainland India where Jainism and Hinduism
became more prevalent and the Huns regularly went on raids with devastating consequences for
monastic communities.
• The beginning of this movement is attributed to a group of mahasiddha (great masters), a kind of
magician who lived in India and seem to have complemented the teachings of the Buddha with
esoteric rituals.
Vajrayana Buddhism focuses on the efforts of becoming a buddha and creating a unique path to
enlightenment through tantric rituals.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, it is understood that one already has a Buddha nature, and everyone
does, just as Mahayana believes – but, in Vajrayana, one only has to realize this to fully awaken.
○ An adherent, therefore, does not have to give up bad habits such as drinking alcohol or
smoking right away to begin one’s work on the path; one only has to commit to following
the path and the desire to engage in unhealthy and damaging behaviors will steadily lose
their allure.
○ Instead of distancing one’s self from desire, one steps toward and through it, shedding
one’s attachment as one proceeds in the discipline
○ Tara is a meditation deity revered by practitioners of the Tibetan branch of Vajrayana
Buddhism to develop certain inner qualities and to understand outer, inner, and secret
teachings such as karuṇa (compassion), metta (loving-kindness), and shunyata (emptiness).
It was systematized by the sage Atisha (982-1054 CE) in Tibet and so is sometimes
referred to as Tibetan Buddhism.

The Dalai Lama, often referenced as the spiritual leader of all Buddhists, is technically only the
spiritual head of the Vajrayana School, and his views are most directly in line with this school of
thought.

This sect can primarily be found in Bhutan, Mongolia, Tibet, and the Kalmykia region of Russia.

The Distinction between Hinayana and Mahayana

All of the above schools of Buddhism can be clubbed into Hinayana and Mahayana. Following are the
major differences between the two:
Hinayana Mahayana
Meaning It translates as ‘the lesser Vehicle.’ It translates as ‘the greater vehicle’, aiming
to carry a greater number of people through
the troubled waters of Sansaar.
Path to Dry Asceticism: An individual can attain Salvation can also be attained through the
salvation salvation through self-discipline & means of faith and devotion to Buddha.
meditation.
Liberation ‘Nibbana’ leads to the extinction of ‘Nirvana’ is the positive attainment of
miseries and being blown out of existence. ananda(bliss). Thus it has a positive
Thus it has a negative connotation. connotation.
Ideal saint An ‘Arhat’(saint) strives for their own A ‘Bodhisattva’(saint) defers their own
salvation without worrying about others salvation for the sake of others.
(Atma-Dipo-Bhava)
Belief It believes in no soul and no god. They believe in the transcendent
(Parmartha).
Idol It doesn’t believe in idol worship and the They consider Buddha as a god and worship
worship deification of Buddha. his idols. They also worship the Bodhisattvas.
Language It adopts the Pali language. It is open to the Sanskrit language as well.
Patron Patronised by Ashoka. Patronised by Kushan ruler Kanishka.
Spread It is found in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand It is spread across Japan, China, Vietnam,
and other parts of South-East Asia. Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Nepal, Tibet,
Mongolia, and Bhutan.

Quick Revision for Prelims

Sects Tenets of the Sects of Buddhism

Hinayan - Theravada, meaning "Teaching of the Elders", is the most conservative and
a orthodox form of Buddhism.
(Lesser - It emphasises attaining liberation from suffering through individual effort and
vehicle) meditation based on Buddha's earliest teachings in the Pali Canon.
/ Hinayana is also known as Shravakayana.
Therava They saw Buddha as a great soul but not God.
da - It believes in the historicity of a single Buddha, Gautama Shakyamuni.
- Emperor Ashoka helped spread Theravada in India.
- Emerging from the Vibhajjavada school, Theravada focuses on
• Monastic discipline, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the three
marks of existence, karma, rebirth,and practices like jhana and vipassana
meditation.
• It does not accept later Mahayana sutras.
- Theravada is dominant in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, having spread there
from India by the 3rd century BCE. Mainly Found in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and
Java.
- The monastic sangha and its strong connections with the laity are notable
features of Theravada Buddhist societies.
- The school upholds Buddha's original doctrines and disciplines, idealising
the arhat who achieves nirvana through rigorous spiritual striving.
Sub-sects-
• Sthaviravada: The original Theravada school from which the Pali Canon
emerged. It emphasised the Four Noble Truths and liberation through arhatship.
Dominant in south India and Sri Lanka.They believe only in the three Pitakas:
Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

○ Sarvastivada: One of the early Buddhist schools which originated during

the time of Ashoka (separated from sthaviravadins), it believed in the
existence of all dharmas in the past, present and future. It was influential
in northwestern India and Central Asia. This school has been broadly
divided into
§ Vaibhasika: A later form of Sarvastivada, its main object is to
expose Abhidhamma philosophy. They hold that objects (Reality) are
directly perceived. They follow the Mahavibhasa Sutra. Key classical
texts of this school are Abhidharma-kosa (Vasubandhu) and Milinda
panho (discussion between Nagasena and Meander I).
§ Sautrantika: An offshoot of the Sarvastivada and based on ‘Sukta
pitaka’, it came up against the naive realism and pluralism of
Vaibhasikas. They hold that objects (reality) are indirectly perceived.
They did not uphold the Mahavibhasa Sutra. Main teachers of this
school are Kumaralat (a contemporary of
Nagarjuna), Yasomitra and Harivarman.
§ Vibhajjavada: An offshoot of the Sthaviravada school, it compiled
the Pali Canon. Its teachings form the basis of modern Theravada
Buddhism.
§ Sammitiya: An early school, it differentiated between the definitive
and interpretative teachings of the Buddha. It is a subset of
Hinayana tradition which believes that though an individual does not
exist independently from the five skandhas, or components that
make up his personality, he is at the same time something greater
than the mere sum of his parts. The Sammatīya were severely
criticized by other Buddhists who considered the theory close to
the rejected theory of atman—i.e., the supreme universal self. It
was popular in Gujarat and Sindh during 7th Century. Their important
centre of learning was at Valabhi, Gujarat. When Heun-Tsang visited
India, this school was the most popular non-Mahayana sect in India.
It died out in medieval times.
- The Theravada school descends from the Vibhajjavada tradition and is
considered the most orthodox and conservative surviving early Buddhist
lineage today.
Mahaya - Emеrgеd around 1st century BCE during thе Fourth Buddhist Council, еmphasizing
na thе concеpt of Bodhisattvas - enlightened beings who dеlay nirvana to hеlp othеrs.
(Greater - Thе Post-Gupta еmpеror Harshavardhana patronizеd Mahayana, еstablishing
Vehicle) monastеriеs and supporting the translation of tеxts intoSanskrit.
- From Kashmir, Mahayana sprеad to Cеntral Asia, China, Korеa, Japan and
Viеtnam.
- Mahayana is considered morе progressive than thе oldеr Theravada tradition. It is
inclusivе of lay followers unlikе Thеravada's monastic focus.
• They see Buddha as an incarnation of God and started his idol worship.
• Mahayana attaches importance to the role of Bodhisattvas who delay their own
salvation to help others to its path.
• Its prime centre was in Andhra Pradesh.
Its scriptures are written in Sanskrit.
• They believed in the concept of transmigration of soul and rebirth.

- Kеy Mahayana concеpts includе:

• Bodhisattva (onе who dеlays nirvana to hеlp othеrs) and Buddha-
naturе (potential for enlightenment in all beings).
• Scripturеs likе Lotus Sutra and Heart Sutra еmphasizе thе virtuеs of
compassion and wisdom.

Mahasanghika
• It is a school which came into existence after the 2nd Buddhist Council. It
separated from the Staviravadis over the differences in following monastic
practices.
• Famous caves of Ellora, Ajanta and Karla in India, intricately carved and
painted with images of Buddha and his teachings are associated with this
sect.
• This sect is considered the origin of Mahayana School.

Sub-sects of Mahasanghika school are:

• Lokottarvada: This school wrote Biography of Buddha in Sanskrit.
• Kukkutika: Set down an early chronology of the Buddha's life.
• Caitika: Paintings of Ajanta and Ellora are associated with this school.

Sub-sеcts of Mahayana include Yogacara and Madhyamaka

○ Madhyamaka:
§ Madhyamaka comes from Buddha’s famous ‘middle position’
(madhyama pratipad).
§ Founder of this school was Nagarjuna.
§ Idea of Shunyata is important feature of this school. It means that
appearances are misleading, and that permanent selves and
substances do not exist.
§ It focuses on consciousness.
§ Important scholars of this school were Buddhapalita, Bhavaviveka
and Chandrakirti.
§ Also known as Sunyavada, it was systematised by Nagarjuna. His
famous work is MulaMadhyamikaKarika.
○ Yogachara, also known as Vigyanavada, is the only idealistic school in
Buddhism and Indian philosophy in the strict sense. Important scholars
of this school were: Asanga & Vasubandhu. It attaches foremost
importance to meditation as a means of attaining the highest goal.
Hence, the name Yogachara. It is not only idealism but also absolutism.
It focuses on the workings of the mind and the nature of consciousness.
As a metaphysical system, it comes up against the extreme nihilism of
Madhyamika.
- Mahayana's universal ideals appealed to the masses as it spread via Silk
Route trade networks to China and East Asia.
- Sculptural Buddha images and Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara embodied
Mahayana's spiritual themes.
Zen - A sub-school of the Mahayana sect
- Emphasises the practice of meditation to achieve enlightenment. It is also known
as Chan in China and Son in Korea.
- It is particularly associated with Japan, where it developed into several distinct sub-
schools.
They believe in serene sounds of nature for the process meditation and establishing
connection with nature.
Vajraya • In the 8th century AD, Vajrayana School developed as an offshoot of Mahayana
na school in which Tara is considered as wife of Buddha.
(Diamo • This sect of Buddhism incorporates elements of mysticism and magic. They
nd believed that salvation can be achieved by acquiring magical powers called Vajra,
Vehicle) meaning thunderbolt or diamond.
• This form of Buddhism was focussed on feminine divinities who were the force
behind the male divinities. These feminine spouses of the new sect saviour of the
followers.
• Tara is considered as a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism. She is considered
to be a meditation deity.
• This school is prevalent in Tibet, Mongolia, parts of Nepal, Bhutan and some parts
of Siberia and is dominantly identified with Tibetan Lamaism. In India, Vajrayana
school flourished in Bengal, Bihar, Ladakh and Sikkim.
• "Om Mani Padme Hum'' is a chanting associated with Vajrayana Buddhism. This
mantra is expected to bestow magical power on the worship and lead to the
highest bliss.
• It emphasises the use of rituals, mantras, and tantra to achieve enlightenment in a
single lifetime.
Navaya - It's a modern Buddhist movement that emerged in India in the late 20th century.
na - It is a reformist movement that seeks to reinterpret Buddhism in the context of the
caste system in India, with a focus on social justice and equality. It is also called as
Newar Buddhism

• In early medieval period a new form of Mahayana called Mantrayana came up in which
Bodhisattva Avalokiteshwar began to be worshipped.
• Pure Land Buddhism is another which developed from Mahayana Buddhism and its goal is
rebirth in a “pure land” of a Buddha Realm which exists on a higher plane.
• An increasingly popular school in the West is Secular Buddhism which rejects all metaphysical
aspects of the belief system to focus on self-improvement for its own sake.
• In addition, present-day Buddhism may also be found in two doctrinal schools, known as
Prasangika and Svatantrika.
Concept of Bodhisattvas

Similarity between Hinayana versus Mahayana

Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they have in common the prohibitions of the five offenses,
and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths.

Bodhisattva
A Bodhisattva means one who has essence of enlightment. Anyone who has a spontaneous wish to
attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all is a Bodhisattva. It’s a very popular subject in Buddhist art. A
bodhisattva is bound to enlightment and refers to all who are destined to become Buddhas in this life
or another life. There are celestial bodhisattvas which are manifestations of Gautam Buddha.

Important 8 Bodhisattvas are as follows:

Avalokiteśvara
Avalokiteśvara encompasses all Buddhas. In China he is known as Guānshìyīn Púsà, in tibetan as
Chenrezig, in Thai as Avalokitesuarn. He is said to incarnate in Dalai Lama. He is depicted as holding
a lotus flower. He is depicted as female also.A cave wall painting of Avalokiteśvara is devoted in
Ajanta Caves as Padmapani.

Manjusri
He is known as Wénshū in Chinse, Jampelyang in Tibetan and is a manifestation of great wisdom and
meditation. Mañjuśrī is depicted as a male bodhisattva wielding a flaming sword in his right hand.

Samantabhadra
Samantabhadra means Universal Worthy and he is associated with meditation. Known as Fugen
Bosatsu in Japanese and very popular in Japan among the Tendai and Shingon sects. His manifestation
is Action and he is key figure in Flower Garland Sutra.

Ksitigarbha
Ksitigarbha is usually depicted as a Buddhist monk in the Orient / East Asia. Ksitigarbha means Earth
Womb. he is regarded as Bodhisattva of Earth or Hell beings or Mortals. He is regarded as guardian of
children and patron deity of deceased children and aborted fetuses in Japanese culture. he carries a
staff.

Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Manjusri, and Avalokitesvara are the principal Bodhisattvas of East
Asian Mahayana Buddhism.

Maitreya
Maitreya will be successor of Gautama Buddha. He is also known asAjita Boddhisattva. He holds a
“water phial” in his left hand. Earliest mention of Metteyya is in the Digha Nikaya 26 of the Pali
Canon. It is said that he will arrive when oceans will decrease in size (that is why keeps a Kumbha or
philial in his hand) and will rule the Ketumati Pure Land (Varanasi).
We note here that popular Budai or laughing Buddha is claimed to be an incarnation of Maitreya.
Budai was a Chinese Zen monk who lived during the Later Liang Dynasty (907–923 CE) in China. In
Japanese, he is called Hotei and is one of the 7 Lucky Gods of Japan.

Vajrapani
Vajrapani is depicted as one of the 3 protective deities around Buddha, other are Manjusri and
Avlokiteshwara. Vajrapani manifests Buddha’s power, Manjusri manifests Buddha’s wisdom and
Avlokiteshwara manifests Buddha’s compassion.In Japan a dharma protector called Nio is also
Vajrapani.

Sadāparibhūta
Sadāparibhūta is a Bodhisattva which manifests “never disparaging” spirit.

Akasagarbha
Akasagarbha is boundless as space. He is known as twin brother of Ksitigarbha. He is menifestation of
wisdom.

Quick Revision

Avalokiteshvara/ The Bodhisattva of compassion and the most universally acknowledged Bodhisattva in
Padmapani Mahayana Buddhism. Usually depicted as holding a lotus and is white in colour.
Vajrapani The Bodhisattva of power and great energy.
Manjushri He is associated with Prajna (transcendent wisdom) in Mahayana Buddhism.
Samantbhadra He is associated with practice and meditation. Together with the Buddha and Manjushri,
he forms the Shakyamuni trinity in Buddhism.
Sarvanivarana- He purifies the internal and external wrongdoings and obstructions that people face on
Vishkambhin their path to enlightenment.
Akashagarbha He is associated with the great element (mahābhūta) of space.
Kshitigarbha He is known for saving the souls of all beings between Buddha’s death and the age of
Maitreya (future Buddha).
Maitreya Regarded as the future Buddha, who would appear on Earth in the future and achieve
complete enlightenment and teach the pure Dharma.
Spread of Buddhism

During the lifetime of the Buddha, Buddhism was accepted by a large section of the people.
For example, the people of Magadha, Kosala, and Kaushambi embraced Buddhism. The republics of Sakyas,
Vajjis and Mallas also followed the process. The appeal of Buddhism for a large section of the population was
because of the following factors:
Social and Economic changes:
• Many people were disenchanted with the caste system and the rigid social hierarchy and were
seeking a more egalitarian and inclusive spiritual path.
Influence of the Buddha's teachings:
• The Buddha's teachings were compelling and resonated; emphasis on compassion, non-violence, and
the importance of personal responsibility appealed to many.
Conversion of rulers and elites:
• The conversion of rulers and elites played a significant role in the spread of Buddhism.
• For example, according to tradition, Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and his daughter Sanghamitra to
Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism. He also established many monasteries and contributed liberally to the
sangha.
Monastic network:
• The establishment of a network of monasteries and the spread of the monastic tradition contributed to the
spread.
Accessibility of the Buddha's teachings:
• It was accessible to people from all walks of life, regardless of their caste or social status.
Use of Popular Language:
• The use of Pali to explain the doctrines also helped in the spread of the religion, Unlike Brahmanical
religion, which had limited itself to the use of Sanskrit.

Spread of Buddhism Outside India

Spread of Hinayana Buddhism
Ashoka sent Buddhist missions to different places like Srilanka, Myanmar and Thailand during his reign. This
laid the foundations for Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

Spread of Mahayana Buddhism

The Kushan Emperor, Kanishka, patronised Mahayana Buddhism and supported the Fourth Buddhist Council
in Kashmir. This helped spread Buddhism to Central Asia.
Buddhism spread to Central Asia and China through merchants and monks travelling along the Silk Route from
India.
• Important Buddhist centres developed along the Silk Route like Kashgar, Khotan, Bamiyan, etc.
• Chinese monks like Fa-Hien and Hiuen Tsang travelled to India and brought back texts and ideas of
Mahayana Buddhism. This was then propagated in China.
• In China, it interacted with the local Confucian and Daoist traditions.
• Buddhism came to Japan from China and Korea in the 6th century CE. Different schools like Zen and
Pure Land developed here using some local traditions.

Spread of Vajrayana Buddhism

• It was developed in India around the 8th century.
• In Tibet, Vajrayana interacted with the Bon religion.
• Monks like Atisha Dipankara and Padmasambhava helped spread this Sect in Tibet (mainly) and
Southeast Asia.
• Tibetan Buddhism combines Indian Buddhism and local Tibetan beliefs.
• The main feature of the Tibetan Vajrayana is the spiritual head in the form of reincarnated lamas,
considered as Bodhisattva of compassion, i.e. Avalokitesvara (Chenrezig).
Buddhism died in India, its birthplace, but somehow managed to be prominent in much of Asia as Hinayana
(Southeast Asia), Mahayana (in almost the rest of Asia), and Vajrayana (Tibet).

The Institution of Sangha in Buddhism

The Buddha established the Buddhist Sangha or religious order, which played a key role in propagating his
teachings. Many of his sermons were delivered at Shravasti, an important centre.
Patronage and Support:
• The wealthy merchants such as Anathapindika became ardent supporters, donating generously to the
Sangha. This allowed Buddhism to spread as monks travelled and preached.
Membership Policy:
The Sangha had an open membership policy, allowing those above fifteen years irrespective of caste or
gender, except criminals and diseased persons.
Though initially reluctant, the Buddha later allowed women to join after requests
from Ananda and Mahapajapati Gotami. New monks and nuns had to shave their heads and wear yellow
robes.
Routines and Practices:
Monks had to go on daily alms rounds to beg for food while preaching Buddhism. During the four
months of monsoon, they meditated in a fixed abode.
Education Initiatives:
The Sangha also promoted education among the masses, providing access to non-Brahmins deprived
under Brahmanism.
Governing Principles:
The Sangha was governed democratically with a code of conduct for monks and nuns. It had powers to
enforce discipline and punish erring members.
Thus, the organised Sangha, with its membership policy, routines, education initiatives and governing
principles, helped popularise Buddhism in India.

Factors leading to the Decline of Buddhism

The dеclinе of Buddhism can be attributed to a complеx intеrplay of various historical, social, and cultural
factors that varied across different regions and time periods. Hеrе аrе sоmе оf thе kеy factors that have been
identified as contributing to thе dеclinе of Buddhism in cеrtain arеas:

Ideological Decline:
Buddhism was founded on egalitarian ideals opposed to Brahmanical supremacy and Vedic rituals. However,
similar problems of hierarchy, corruption and complex rituals emerged in institutional Buddhism over time.
For instance, the accumulation of wealth and power within monasteries undermined Buddhism's essence.
Monks' involvement in worldly matters contradicted Buddhist principles.
Multiple divisions into sects and subsects led to a loss of Buddhism's original philosophical core.
These structural and ideological issues resembled problems in Hinduism, eroding Buddhism's separate religious
identity.

Hinduism's Reform and Assimilation:

On the other hand, Hinduism reformed itself by adopting Buddhist practices like vegetarianism and opposing
animal sacrifice.
Hindu leaders like Adi Shankaracharya established (mathas) monasteries on the Buddhist model to revive
Hinduism while critiquing Buddhist philosophy.
Fundamental philosophical similarities between Buddhism and Hinduism on concepts like karma, dharma and
moksha enabled Buddhism's gradual assimilation into Hinduism from 500 CE onwards.
Buddha emerging as an avatar of Vishnu in Hindu texts facilitated the assimilation.
Lower castes found Buddhist egalitarianism attractive, causing the acceleration of the assimilation.

Loss of Royal Patronage:

Decline of major Buddhism-following dynasties like the Kushanas and the shifting of royal patronage towards
Brahmanical Hinduism under the Guptas accelerated the decline of Buddhism.
This lack of state support led to the decay of Buddhist sanghas and monasteries.

Lack of Vernacular Litеraturе:

Unlike early Buddhist scriptures composed in Pali, later were written in Sanskrit, meaning their ideas did not
penetrate the vernacular-speaking masses in inland India.
This restricted Buddhism's expansion beyond urban elite groups.

Foreign Invasions:
Invasions from the north-west by non-Buddhists like the Huns and Turks (Khilji) led to vandalism and
persecution of Buddhist monks and devotees.
These assaults disrupted Buddhist monasteries, pilgrimage sites and institutions like Nalanda.
The destruction of the Mahayana Buddhist sites in northern India by Islamic invaders from 1100 CE sealed
Buddhism's demise in the land of its birth. Dеspitе this dеclinе, Buddhism's impact rеmains еvidеnt through its
profound influеncе on Asia's cultural and spiritual landscapе.

Important facts for prelims

• Vijaya Singhava was the first to preach Buddhism in Ceylon.

• Kumarajeeva was the first to introduce Buddhism in China.
• Kanishka made it popular in Central Asia.

Kumargupta of Gupta dynasty founded Nalanda University (University of Buddhist studies).

Harsha Vardhana – the last great king of ancient India, was converted into Mahayana Buddhism by
Huien Tsang. Harsha conducted Buddhist conferences called Sangeethies at Prayag.
The Palas were the last patrons of Buddhism. They founded three universities: Vikramshila (Attesha
Deepankar was the first VC), Uddandapura and Jagaddala.
Palas patronized Vajrayapa Buddhism (Buddhism with Mantra & Tantra and magical powers)
In the South, Acharya Nagarjuna founded Sree Parvatha University in Nagarjunikonda.
Places associated with Buddha and Buddhism

Astamahasthanas are eight great holyplaces associated with the life of Buddha. These include four
pilgrimage sites related to the life of Gautama Buddha viz. Lumbini, Bodhgaya, Sarnath and Kushinagara
and four other sites viz. Sravasti, Sankasya, Rajgir and Vaishali.

Lumbini
Lumbini is currently located in Kapilavastu district of Nepal. It is birth place of Buddha. At the time
of the birth of Buddha, Lumbini was a part of Shakya Janapada, which was a republic.

Bodhgaya
It is located in Bihar on the bank of river Neranjana {this river was known as Uruwela at that time}. It is
known as a place of enlightenment of Buddha.

Sarnath
Sarnath {also known as Mrigadava, Migadaya, Rishipattana, Isipatana} is the deer park where Gautama
Buddha delivered his first sermon or Dhammachakraparivartan Sutra. At the time of Buddha, it was a part of
Kashi Janapada.

Kushinagar
Kushinara or Kushinagara is located in the Kushinagar district of Uttar Pradesh. It is the site of Buddha’s
death and mahaparinirvana. At the time of Buddha’s death, it was the capital of Malla janapada.

Sravasti
Sravasti was located in Uttar Pradesh around the area of Balrampur in modern Uttar Pradesh. It is closely
associated with the life of Buddha because Buddha had spent 24 Chaturmasas {implies 24 years because one
year as only one Chaturmasa between Ashadha to Kartika}. Thus, we can say that most of the monastic life
of Buddha was spent in Shravasti. In Buddha’s times, Shravasti was the capital of Kosala Kingdom.
Shravasti is also the birthplace of Jaina Tirthankar Sambhavanath, and thus is important for Jains also.

Sankasya
Its current location is the Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh. It has some faiths of Buddhism that Buddha
after his death descended from heaven here.

Rajgir
Rajgir was the early capital of Magadh Janapada, which was ruled by Bimbisara during Buddha’s time. After
the great departure (Mahabhinishkramana), Buddha had first gone to Rajgir. He started begging alms over
there and living a life of an ascetic. King Bimbisara had offered Buddha his throne which he turned down.

Vaishali
At the time of Buddha, Vaishali was in Vajji Janapada. After leaving Kapilavastu for renunciation, he came
to Vaishali first and had his spiritual training from Allara and Udaka.

Other places of importance in Buddhism

Amaravati
Amaravati in Andhrapradesh’s Guntur district is also known as Dhanyakataka or Dharanikota and was the
site of a great Buddhist Stupa built in pre-Mauryan times, ruled by Satavahana kings.

Nagarjunkonda
Nagarjunkonda is near Nagarjun Sagar in Andhra Pradesh. Once, it was home to more than 30 Buddhist
Viharas (Buddhist universities and monasteries), attracting students from as far as China, Gandhara, Bengal,
and Sri Lanka. Nagarjunkonda was one the largest and most important Buddhist centers in South India from
the second century BC until the third century AD. It was named after Nagarjuna, a renowned Buddhist
scholar, and philosopher, who had migrated here from Amaravati to propagate and spread the Buddha’s
message of universal peach and brotherhood. Remains were discovered in 1926 by archaeologist AR
Saraswati 1926.

Ajanta Caves
Ajanta Caves are 31 rock-cut caves from the 2nd to 8th century AD, located in Aurangabad. The first caves
called Chaityas were created during Satavahana Dynasty. Cave No. 1 has the painting of Padmapani and
Vajrapani. Painted narratives of the Jataka tales are depicted on the walls.

Angkor Wat
Angkor Wat is located in Cambodia. The temple complex was built by Suryavarman II and it was first
devoted to Vishnu and later to Buddhists.

Bodh Gaya
Bodh Gaya was known as Bodhimanda, Uruvela, Sambodhi, Vajrasana, and Mahabodhi till the 18th century
when Bodh Gaya’s name became popular. It has the Mahabodhi temple and Bodhi tree. It became Unesco’s
world heritage site in 2002.

Bodhi Tree
It’s a Pipal Tree (Ficus Religiosa) and is known as Bo in Sri Lanka. Located in Bodh Gaya. Under this tree
Gautama attained enlightenment. The current tree is a descendent of the original tree. There are other Bodhi
trees as well viz. Anandabodhi tree in Sravasti and the Bodhi tree (Bo) or also known as Jaya Sri Maha
Bodhi planted in 288 BC in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka and both of them have been propagated from the
original tree. It is also known as the oldest living Human Planted tree in the world with known planting date.

Borobudur
Borobudur is located in Indonesia and comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and
is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. It’s a world Heritage site. There are 3 Buddhist
temples which are known as Borobudur Temple Compounds.

Bamyan Caves
They are located in Afghanistan and have statues represented the classic blended style of Gandhara art of the
6th century, They were the largest examples of standing Buddha carvings in the world before they were
blown by dynamite by the Taliban in 2001.

Ellora Caves
Ellora Caves represent Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu Rock-cut temples built by Rastrakuta Kings. The earliest
Buddhist cave is Cave 6; most caves of Buddhism are Viharas. Cave number 10 is a Chaitya hall also known
as Chandrashala or Vishwakarma Cave and also known as carpenter’s cave. At the heart of this cave is a 15
ft statue of Buddha seated in a preaching pose.

Pushpagiri University
Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, and Udayagiri are part of the Puspagiri University which flourished till the 11th century
in Odisha. They lie atop the Langudi hills in Jajpur and Cuttak of Orissa.

Vikramshila, Odantapuri and Somapapuri

Vikramshila. Odantapuri & Somapapuri were the Buddhist Viharas founded by Palas.
Contribution and influence

• Concept of non-violence: It emphasises non-violence and the sanctity of animal life.

• Monastic system: The Buddhist monks followed strict codes of discipline. Each monastery
had a head who was elected by the monks themselves. Gradually this monastic system
was adopted by Hinduism.
• Development of Art: Buddhist art and sculpture coincided with the spread of Buddhism.
Many stupas, chaityas and pillars were constructed. Events from the life of Buddha and
the Bodhisattvas were the most popular themes in the Gandhara and Mathura schools of
art. Magnificent paintings in Ajanta and Ellora survived the test of time and can still be
seen.
• Development of literature: The Tripitakas and Jataka are the most important literary
works of the Buddhists. Further, famous philosophical texts and commentaries like
Mahavibhasha were composed.
• Established relations with foreign countries: The Buddhist Missionaries spread the
teachings of Buddha from the 3rd century BCE onwards to foreign lands. For example,
Ashoka sent his son and daughter to Sri Lanka. In return, foreign Buddhist pilgrims and
students came to India in search of knowledge.
• Centre of learning: Buddhism promoted education through famous residential
universities like Nalanda, Taxila, Vikramasilan, Nagarjunakonda, and Valabhi.
• Simplification of Religion: The greatest contribution of Buddhism was the establishment
of a simple religion which could be easily understood and followed by ordinary people.
There were no complex rituals, sacrifices or yajnas.
• Less discriminatory: there was lesser discrimination based on caste as well.
Guru Purnima

The day commemorates Buddha’s first teaching experience after attaining Enlightenment to
the first five ascetic disciples (pañcavargika) on the full-moon day of Asadha at ‘Deer Park’,
Ṛiṣipatana in the current day Sarnath, near Varanasi, India.
This teaching of Dhamma Chakra- PavattanaSutta (Pali) or Dharma chakra Pravartana
Sutra (Sanskrit) is also known as the First Turning of Wheels of Dharma and comprised of
the Four Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path.
This day is also aptly observed as Guru Poornima by both Buddhists and Hindus as a day to
mark reverence to their Gurus.
The auspicious day of Asadha Poornima falls on the first full moon day of the month
of Asadha as per Indian sun calendar.
• Also known as Esala Poya in Sri Lanka and Asanha Bucha in Thailand
• Second most sacred day for Buddhists after the Buddha Poornima or Vesak
• Hindus dedicate this day to Maharshi Veda Vyasa, the sage who is believed to have
edited the sacred Hindu text, the Vedas and created the 18 Puranas, Mahabharata and
the Srimad Bhagavatam.

Buddhism in India
In India, we see Buddhism as a fresh expression of the sublime truth. Lord Buddha’s
enlightenment, and the subsequent preaching by him for over four decades, were in line
with India’s tradition of respect for intellectual liberalism and spiritual diversity. In modern
times, two exceptionally great Indians – Mahatma Gandhi and Babasaheb Ambedkar –
found inspiration in the words of the Buddha and went on to shape the destiny of the
nation.
“Buddhism was not just a religious revolution, but a social revolution too.”
Buddha did not intend to establish new religious or social order. But the simplicity of his
teaching of truth connected with masses in such a manner that Buddhism became a
completely new approach to look at religion and society. It became a new religious and
social order.
Religious Revolution
• Explanation of Sufferings through 4 simple noble truths and the wheel of dhamma
was understandable by ordinary people unlike the scriptures interpreted by priests
only.
• Focus was on ethical living of astangika marga rather than rituals, animal sacrifices,
etc.
• A great stress was led to individual search of the truth and authority of Vedas was
challenged. Faith was given rational basis.
• It preached atheism that is, there is no God that will help us in Moksha but we
ourselves are the makers of our destiny.
• Further proliferation of multiple sects (Hinayana, Mahayana, etc) in Buddhism brought
out characteristically new religious approaches
Social Revolution
○ Intimate connection between religion and society in those times led to the
manifestation of Buddhism as egalitarian doctrine. It opposed caste and varna
system, any form of hierarchy and discrimination.
○ Women were given equal status as men which was against the Shastras like
Manusmriti (social code).
○ Use of Pali language as opposed to Sanskrit which could be read only by Priests,
broke the monopoly over knowledge
○ Emphasis on ahimsa, avoidance of extremes led to establishment of peaceful
society.
○ It became conducive to the progress in the areas of art, architecture, sculpture,
literature.
○ Trade flourished and India’s political power spread far and wide in subcontinent.

Noble Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path consists of eight practices: right view, right resolve, right speech, right
conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right samadhi (‘meditative
absorption or union’).
• In early Buddhism, these practices started with understanding that the body-mind
works in a corrupted way (right view), followed by entering the Buddhist path of self-
observance, self-restraint, and cultivating kindness and compassion; and culminating
in dhyana or samadhi, which reinforces these practices for the development of the
body-mind.
• In the Theravada tradition, this path is also summarized as sila (morality), samadhi
(meditation) and prajna (insight). In Mahayana Buddhism, this path is contrasted with
the Bodhisattva path, which is believed to go beyond Arhatship to full Buddhahood.
• In Buddhist symbolism, the Noble Eightfold Path is often represented by means of the
dharma wheel (dharmachakra), in which its eight spokes represent the eight elements
of the path.
Division Eightfold Path factors
Moral virtue (Sanskrit: śīla, Pāli: sīla) 3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right livelihood
Meditation (Sanskrit and Pāli: Samadhi) 6. Right effort
7. Right mindfulness
8. Right concentration
Insight, wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā, Pāli: paññā) 1. Right view
2. Right resolve
Bojjannakonda: Buddhist site in Andhra Pradesh
○ Bojjannakonda and Lingalametta are twin Buddhist monasteries dating back to
the 3rd century BC.
○ These sites have seen three forms of Buddhism —
§ The Theravada period when Lord Buddha was considered a teacher;
§ The Mahayana, where Buddhism was more devotional; and
§ Vajrayana, where Buddhist tradition was more practised as Tantra and in
esoteric form
§ The site is famous for many votive stupas, rock-cut caves, brick-built
edifices, early historic pottery, and Satavahana coins that date back to the
1st century AD.

The Original Pipal tree at Boudh Gaya was cut down by: Pushyamitra Sunga
• Pushyamitra Sunga was the founder of Sunga Dynasty of Magadha. Pushyamitra
Sunga was a military general in the Mauryan Army. He became the King by killing King
Brihadratha, the last Mauryan emperor.
• Pusyamitra was a staunch Hindu, a champion of Brahmanism and that is why the
Buddhist texts show him as a cruel man.
• The tree was again cut down by King Pushyamitra Shunga in the 2nd century BC, and
by King Shashanka in 600 AD.

Pavarana ceremony in Buddhism

○ Pavarana is a Buddhist holy day celebrated on Aashvin full moon of the lunar
month. It marks the end of the 3 lunar months of Vassa.
○ During the three-month rainy season, the Monks live indoors, at the end of rainy
season, Pravarana ceremony takes place where every monk irrespective of rank,
accept, if any, violation of the code of conduct on their part.

Guru Padmasambhava (also known as second Buddha): Founder of Tibetan

Buddhism
There is a 19-foot-high statue of Guru Padmasambhava at Jirang in Gajapati
district, Odisha. The statue is placed in the middle of ‘Padma Sarovar’, a large
tank near Padmasambhava Mahavihara, the largest Buddhist monastery in
eastern India. The Dalai Lama had inaugurated this monastery in 2010. Tibetan
refugees settled in this region over six decades ago.
§ Padmasambhava, also known as Guru Rinpoche, is considered to be
the founder of Tibetan Buddhism.
§ Historians claim that Guru Padmasambhava, also known as second Buddha,
was born and brought up in Odisha before he left for Tibet.
§ An International Conference on 8th century Himalayan sage Guru
Padmasambhava was held in New Delhi. The conference was organised as
part of events to commemorate 50-years of formalization of diplomatic
ties between India and Bhutan.
§ There is an image or painting of the Guru Padmasambhava in every
Bhutanese home or temple.
§ Guru Padmasambhava is also considered to be the founder of Nyingma
tradition, oldest of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism.
Buddhism and Art
□ Stupas: were to commemorate important events or mark important
places associated with Buddhism or to house important relics of
Buddha. The best examples of stupas are those constructed at
Amaravati, Sanchi, Barhut, Saranath and Gaya. One of the most striking
architectural remains of ancient India and the earliest and largest of the
three stupas found in Sanchi was built by Ashoka (273-236 B.C.)
□ Viharas or monasteries: constructed for prayer with a running
verandah on three sides or an open courtyard surrounded by a row of
cells and a pillared verandah in front. These cells served as dwelling
places for the monks. These monastic buildings had a Chaitya hall or
Chaitya mandir attached to a stupa – the chief object of worship. Some
of the important Buddhist viharas are those at Ajanta, Ellora. Nasik,
Karle, Kanheri, Bagh and Badami.
□ Paintings: Paintings which has been an accepted art since early times
attained heights of excellence in Gupta period. These exquisite
paintings or frescos are to be seen in the caves of Ajanta. The entire
surface of the caves is exquisitely painted and shows the high standard
reached in mural painting.
□ Sthambas or Pillars: with religious emblems were put up by pious
Buddhists in honour of Buddha or other great Buddhists. Fragments of
sthambas belonging to Mauryan times and later were found at Sanchi,
Sarnath, Amaravati and Nagarjunkonda.
□ Literature: The canonical literature is best represented by the
“Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets -Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and
Abhidhamma Pitaka. The non-canonical literature is best represented
by the Jatakas.
Role played by Indian sculptures to express the ideas of Buddhism
® Jataka stories became part of stupa decoration in post mauryan
phase. Depiction of showing Queen Mayadevi’s dream; mother of
Siddhartha Gautam indicates ideas of Buddhist symbolism used in
sculpture.
® The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the
Buddha, and the stupa was meant to represent the
mahaparinibbana. Another frequently used symbol was the wheel.
This stood for the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at
Sarnath. As is obvious, such sculptures cannot be understood
literally – for instance, the tree does not stand simply for a tree,
but symbolises an event in the life of the Buddha.
® The shalabhanjika motif suggests that many people who turned to
Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and even non-
Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas.
® Various schools of Buddhist sculpture emerged in India like
Mathura school in which, abhayamudra of Buddha or depiction of
bodhisattvas, in Gandhara school depiction of meditated peace
and in Amravati school depiction of jataka tales propagate lessons
of Buddhism.
® With the rise of Vajrayana Buddhism many Boddhisattva images
were added as a part of the personified representations of certain
virtues or qualities as propagated by the Buddhist religious
principles for the welfare of the masses.
Caves
◊ Lomus rishi caves of 3rd century BCE exhibit Chaitya- prayer
hall of Buddhists.
◊ Buddhist caves of Viharas and Chaityas included sculptures,
paintings with frescos. Sculptures in the caves gives idea of
religious traditions of those times. For examples, Hinayana
Buddhist caves lacked sculpture of Buddha, whereas
Mahayana caves have enormous sculpture of Buddha.
◊ Caves on the trade routes give idea of economic linkages of
caves to the traders, who used to give donations to the
monasteries of Buddhists, Jains or Hindus. For example
density of caves in the western ghat is quite high.
◊ Painting of the caves depicts stories from the Jatakas, which
are based on previous births of Buddha. Ajanta caves are the
most elaborated cave complex significant for painting.
 Buddhism terminologies

The important terms from Buddhism are as follows:

Adhitthana
It denotes commitment, desire, and prayer. Adhitthana is one of the ten “perfections” (dasa pramiyo)
in the late canonical writings of Theravada Buddhism and is symbolized by the bodhisattva’s
determination to achieve complete awakening.

Agama
An agama is a grouping of early Buddhist writings. The Suttapiaka of the early Buddhist schools,
which had various recensions of each agama, is made up of the five agamas collectively.

Amitabha
It is a Sanskrit word. Amitabha means an immeasurable light and immeasurable life.

Tathagatha
It is a title bestowed upon Buddha Gautama himself, or a follower of Buddhism who has achieved
perfection.

Anapanasati
“Mindfulness of breathing” or “paying attention to the breath” is referred to as anapanasati. The
anapanasati Sutta, one of several suttas that explain this fundamental aspect of Buddhist meditation,
is credited to Gautama Buddha.

Anicca
The idea of anicca holds that nothing remains the same and that everything is constantly shifting.
Impermanence is yet another name for this idea. Buddhists must acknowledge that nothing can
remain the same; everything must advance or transform.

Arhat
An arhat, also known as an arahant, is a person who has attained Nirvana in Buddhism and has been
freed from the circle of rebirth that never ends.

Bhavacakra
The bhavacakra is a depiction of Samsara. It aids non-Buddhists in understanding Buddhist
teachings, and it can be found on the exterior walls of Tibetan Buddhist temples and monasteries in
the Indo-Tibetan area.

Bhante
In the Theravada tradition, the term “bhante,” which is also known as “Bhadanta,” is used to address
Buddhist monks and superiors.

Bodhisattva
An individual who is progressing towards bodhi or Buddhahood is referred to as a bodhisattva in
Buddhism.

Dhammapada
The Dhammapada is a compilation of 423 verses that Gautama Buddha explained directly to his
followers.

Dipankara
One of the ancient Buddhas is known as Dipankara or Dipankara Buddha. According to legend, he
lived four asankheyyas and 100,000 kappas ago.

Gassho
Buddhists frequently use their palms to make this motion. Gassho is the Japanese word for “palms
together.” Gassho is a greeting custom that has its roots in India. It can be used to say “hello,”
“goodbye,” and “thank you,” and it also conveys a sense of profound respect and honor.

Kakusandha Buddha
Chapter 22 of the Buddhavasa, one of the Pali Canon’s volumes, contains a biography of one of the
ancient Buddhas named Kakusandha, or Krakucchamda in Sanskrit.

Kshanti
Patience, tolerance, and pardon are all aspects of kshanti or khanti. It is a pramit in both Mahyna and
Theravadin Buddhism.

Kumbhanda
A kumbha or Kumbh is one of a collection of misshaped, dwarfish entities that make up the minor
deities in Buddhist mythology.

Madhyamaka
Nagarjuna, an Indian Buddhist monk, and philosopher established the Mdhyamaka tradition of
Buddhist thought and practice, also known as Nyavda and Nisvabhvavda.

Mahamudra
Mahamudra, which means “great seal” or “great imprint,” alludes to the idea that wisdom and
emptiness are inseparable and that this truth is stamped on all occurrences.

Nekkhamma
Generally translated as “renunciation” or “the pleasure of renunciation,” the Pali term nekkhamma
also means “freedom from lust, craving, and desires” or, more specifically, “giving up the world and
leading a holy life.”

Nirvana
In Indian religions, the idea of nirvana stands for the highest level of soteriological release, or the
release from dukha, or pain, and sasra, or the cycle of birth and rebirth. In Indian faiths, moksha and
mukti are equivalent terms for nirvana.

Pabbajja
Pabbajj, which essentially means “to go forth,” describes the act of a layperson leaving their home to
live a life of renunciation as a member of a bhikkhu community.

Paramartha
The Six Dynasties period saw the prolific Chinese translations of Buddhist literature by an Indian
monk from Ujjain named Paramrtha.

Paramita
A Buddhist word known as pramit or parami is frequently translated as “perfection.”

Parinirvana
When someone who has achieved nirvana during their existence dies, they enter nirvana after death,
which is referred to as parinirvana in Buddhism.

Prajna
A Buddhist word known as prajna or panna is frequently translated as “wisdom,” “intelligence,” or
“understanding.” Buddhist writings refer to it as realizing the true essence of phenomena.

Pratityasamutpada
The central Buddhist concept of pratittyasamutpda, also known as dependent arising or dependent
origination, is held by all schools of Buddhism.

Pratyekabuddha
Pratyekabuddhayna, which directly translates to “solitary buddha” or “a buddha on their own,” is the
Buddhist term for the method or means of enlightenment of a pratyekabuddha or paccekabuddha.

Ratnasambhava
One of the Five Dhyani Buddhas of Mahayana and Vajrayana, or Tantric Buddhism, is
Ratnasambhava. Ratnasambhava’s mandalas and mantras concentrate on fostering equality and
calmness, and in Vajrayana Buddhist philosophy, they are linked to an effort to eradicate greed and
arrogance.

Samanera
In the setting of Buddhism, a male novice monastic is known as a samaera (Sanskrit: ). A female
beginner is referred to as a “samaneri” or “sramanerika.”

Samatha
Samatha, which translates to “calm,” “serenity,” “tranquillity of awareness,” and vipassana, which
means “special, super, seeing,” are two mental qualities that are developed in tandem by Buddhist
practice.

Samsara
In Buddhism and Hinduism, samsara refers to the endless cycle of recurrent births, menial life, and
rebirth. Samsara is thought of as dukkha, misery, and generally unpleasant and painful, sustained by
desire and avidya, and the ensuing karma.

Sangha
In many Indian languages, including Pali, the Sanskrit term sangha is used to indicate “association,”
“assembly,” “company,” or “community.” Sangha is also frequently used as a surname in these
languages.

Tanha
Buddhism places a high value on the idea of tanha, which can refer to either physical or mental
“thirst, desire, longing, or greed.”

Three Jewels
Buddha, dharma, and sangha are the three manifestations of the awakened mind that Buddhists seek
refuge. They are referred to as the “three jewels” because each of these is a priceless and essential
component of the Buddhist journey.

Tiantai
A Mahayana Buddhist school of East Asia that originated in China in the sixth century is known as
Tiantai or T’ien-t’ai.

Trialokya
Trailokya means “three worlds.” Additionally, “three spheres,” “three planes of existence,” “three
realms,” and “three regions” can all be used as synonyms. Early Buddhist writings, as well as Hindu
and Jain texts, all mention the idea of three worlds.

Tulku
In Tibetan Buddhism, a tulku is a reincarnate guardian of a particular lineage of teachings who are
given abhieka and trained from an early age by disciples of his or her forebear.

Upadana
“Fuel, material cause, a substrate that is the source and means for maintaining an active process
energized” is what the Sanskrit and Pali term upadana means. It is a key Buddhist idea that refers to
“attachment, clinging, and grasping.”

Upasaka
The Sanskrit and Pali terms for “attendant” are upsaka or upasika.

Upaya
An element of guidance along the Buddhist paths to liberation where a conscious, voluntary action “is
driven by an incomplete reasoning” about its direction” is referred to as upaya in Buddhism.

Upeksha
Upeksha, also known as upeksha in Pali, is a Sanskrit word that implies calmness, detachment, even-
mindedness, or letting go.

Urna
An auspicious mark known as the Urna is applied to the forehead of Buddhist figures as a spiral or
circular dot in Buddhist art and culture. The Lakkhana Sutta, also known as the “Discourse on Marks,”
lists the urna as the thirty-first bodily quality of Buddha.

Viriya
A frequent translation of the Buddhist word viriya is “energy,” “diligence,” “enthusiasm,” or “effort.” It
can be characterized as a disposition that happily engages in good deeds and motivates one to carry
out good or virtuous deeds.

Yana
In Buddhism, the term “yana” designates a style or approach to spiritual practice. According to
legend, the Gautama Buddha taught each of them individually in reaction to each student’s unique
abilities.

Satori
Japanese Buddhists refer to awakening as satori, which means “comprehension; understanding.”

Sutra
Aphorisms or collections of aphorisms in the form of a manual, or more generally, a condensed
manual or text, are referred to as sutras in Indian literary traditions. Hinduism, Buddhism, and
Jainism all use sutras, a category of ancient and medieval Indian writings.

Skandha
The words “heaps, aggregates, collections, and groupings” are skandhas or khandhas. In Buddhism,
it alludes to the five tangible and psychological components that contribute to the development of
craving and clinging.

Vihara
Vihara, is an early form of a Buddhist monastery with an open court and open cells surrounding it and
approachable through a porch at the front.

Dharma
Dharma The ceremonies of passage and rituals yoga, ethical conduct qualities like ahimsa Justice
and the law Sannyasa, and life phases duties include studying with instructors. One of the most
important concepts in Indian faiths like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and others is called
dharma.

Dharmakaya
In Mahayana Buddhism, the dharmakaya is one of the three forms of a Buddha. The unmanifested,
“inconceivable” aspect of a Buddha that buddhas emerge from and return to after their dissolution is
known as the dharmakaya.

Mahakasyapa
One of Gautama Buddha’s most important followers was Mahkyapa. Having excelled in ascetic
practice, he is viewed in Buddhism as an enlightened disciple. After the Buddha’s passing, Mahkyapa
became the monastic community’s head.

Mandala
A mandala is a grouping of images in a geometric pattern. Mandalas are used in a variety of spiritual
traditions to focus practitioners’ and adepts’ concentration, provide spiritual guidance, create a
sacred space, and facilitate meditation and trance induction.

Mudita
Mudit refers to happiness, particularly sympathetic or vicarious happiness, or the joy experienced
when taking enjoyment in the happiness of others.

Prajnaparamita
In Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism, the term “Prajnaparamita” refers to “the Perfection of
Wisdom” or “Transcendental Knowledge.”

Samjna
A common translation of the Buddhist word saj is “perception” or “cognition.” It can be characterized
as reaching for distinctive qualities or traits. Samj can signify a variety of things depending on the
religion.

Appamada
Apramda, which means “conscientious” or “concern,” is a Buddhist word that can be found in
Sanskrit, Pali, and Tibetan Wylie.

Jhana
In the earliest Buddhist writings, dhyana or jhna is a part of the mind-training practice known as
meditation, which removes the mind from its automatic reactions to sense impressions.

Mara
In Buddhism, Mara is a wicked celestial king who tried to seduce Prince Siddhartha to prevent him
from reaching enlightenment. According to different legends, Mara’s daughters are often described
as beautiful women in these tales.

Mudita
Mudit (Pali and Sanskrit:) denotes joy, more specifically sympathetic or vicarious joy, or the joy that
results from taking pleasure in the happiness of others.

Papanca
Buddhists use the terms “conceptual proliferation,” “mental proliferation,” or “conceptual elaboration”
to describe the process of conceptualizing the world through words and ideas, which can lead to the
emergence of suffering.

Paramita
A Buddhist word known as paramita or parami is frequently translated as “perfection.” Buddhist texts
define it as high moral character traits typically found in enlightened beings.

Piti
In Pali, piti is a mental element linked to the emergence of jhana during Buddhist concentration. Piti,
as opposed to sukha’s calmness, is stimulating, thrilling, and energizing, according to Buddhadasa
Bhikkhu.

Saddha
The term “faith” in Buddhism alludes to a calm dedication to the application of the Buddha’s teaching
and confidence in enlightened or highly evolved beings, such as Buddhas or bodhisattvas.

Samadhi
The highest level of mental focus one can accomplish while still being physically bound, connecting
them to the highest reality.

Avalokiteshvara
In the time between the passing of the historical Buddha, Gautama, and the emergence of the future
buddha, Maitreya, Avalokiteshvara is the earthly manifestation of the self-born eternal Buddha
Amitabha, whose figure is depicted in his headgear.

Magga -Path

Arhat-The one who wins the foe.

Parivaarajak- Homeless wanderer

Gassho

• It is a gesture used in some schools of Buddhism, as well as in Hinduism.

• Buddhists frequently use their palms to make this motion.
• It is a Japanese word for “palms together” to greet or have a calm state of mind.
• Holding the hands in front of the face signifies non-duality, showing that the giver and receiver are
not two.
• The term is rooted in India, conveying a sense of profound respect and honour.

Nekkhamma
• Generally it means “renunciation” and specifically it means “the renunciation of pleasure”.
• It is a Pali term that means freedom from lust, craving, and desires, giving up the world, and leading a
holy life.
• After generosity and moral discipline, it is third on the ten Theravada paramitas, or forces for
transformation.
• Lifestyle commitment is important for lay practitioners, just like it is for monks and nuns, to cultivate
this virtue.

Anapanasati

• It is one of many suttas that explain this fundamental aspect of Buddhist meditation.
• Anapanasati involves mindfulness of breathing or paying attention to the breath.
• It is a way of cultivating the seven factors of awakening and acts as an alternative to dhyana.
• Counting to breath for this technique is attributed to Buddhaghisha’s commentary in Visuddhimagga
and Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakosa Karika.

Ratnasambhava

• They concentrate on fostering equality and calmness, which is paramount in today's world.
• Its mandalas and mantras promote equality, and in Vajrayana Buddhist philosophy, they try to
eradicate greed and arrogance.
• It is one of the five Dhyani Buddhas of Mahayana and Vajrayana.
• The mandala is yellow and in the southern direction. It shows Buddha’s right hand extended
downward and his left hand holding a precious jewel.
• Ratnasambhava embodies Dharma, which helps change pride, miserliness, and avarice into
equanimity.

Vairocana

• A cosmic Buddha playing the role of Dharmakaya of Gautam Buddha.

• Vairocana is the guardian of the centre famous for dharma chakra mudra or "Turning of the Wheel of
Law".
• He is also seen as the embodiment of the Buddhist concept of Sunyata.
• Vairocana is a primordial Buddha in the conception of the Five Tathagatas of Mahayana and
Vajrayana Buddhism.