Computer Networking

Michaelmas/Lent Term
M/W/F 11:00-12:00
LT1 in Gates Building

Slide Set 1
Andrew W. Moore
[email protected]
2014-2015

1
 Topic 1 Foundation
• Administrivia
• Networks
• Channels
• Multiplexing
• Performance: loss, delay, throughput

2
Course Administration
Commonly Available Texts
 Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach
Kurose and Ross, 6th edition 2013, Addison-Wesley
(5th edition is also commonly available)
 Computer Networks: A Systems Approach
Peterson and Davie, 5th edition 2011, Morgan-Kaufman

Other Selected Texts (non-representative)

 Internetworking with TCP/IP, vol. I + II
Comer & Stevens, Prentice Hall
 UNIX Network Programming, Vol. I
Stevens, Fenner & Rudoff, Prentice Hall

3
 Thanks
• Slides are a fusion of material from
Ian Leslie, Richard Black, Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Larry Peterson, Bruce Davie,
Jen Rexford, Ion Stoica, Vern Paxson, Scott Shenker, Frank Kelly, Stefan
Savage, Jon Crowcroft , Mark Handley, Sylvia Ratnasamy, and Adam
Greenhalgh (and to those others I’ve forgotten, sorry.)
• Supervision material is drawn from
Stephen Kell, Andy Rice, and the fantastic TA teams of 144 and 168
• Practical material will become available through this year
But would be impossible without Georgina Kalogeridou,
Nick McKeown, Bob Lantz, Te-Yuan Huang and Vimal Jeyakumar
• Finally thanks to the Part 1b students past and Andrew Rice for all
the tremendous feedback.

4
 What is a network?
• A system of “links” that interconnect “nodes”
in order to move “information” between nodes

• Yes, this is very vague

5
 There are many different types
of networks

• Internet
• Telephone network
• Transportation networks
• Cellular networks
• Supervisory control and data acquisition networks
• Optical networks
• Sensor networks
We will focus almost exclusively on the Internet

6
 The Internet is
transforming everything
• The way we do business
– E-commerce, advertising, cloud-computing
• The way we have relationships
– Facebook friends, E-mail, IM, virtual worlds
• The way we learn
– Wikipedia, MOOCs, search engines
• The way we govern and view law
– E-voting, censorship, copyright, cyber-attacks

Took the dissemination of information to the next level

7
 The Internet is big business

• Many large and influential networking companies

– Cisco, Broadcom, AT&T, Verizon, Akamai, Huawei, …
– $120B+ industry (carrier and enterprise alone)

• Networking central to most technology

companies
– Google, Facebook, Intel, HP, Dell, VMware, …

8
 Internet research has impact

• The Internet started as a research experiment!

• 4 of 10 most cited authors work in networking
• Many successful companies have emerged from
networking research(ers)

9
But why is the Internet interesting?
“What’s your formal model for the Internet?” -- theorists

“Aren’t you just writing software for networks” – hackers

“You don’t have performance benchmarks???” – hardware folks

“Isn’t it just another network?” – old timers at AT&T

“What’s with all these TLA protocols?” – all

“But the Internet seems to be working…” – my mother

10
A few defining characteristics
of the Internet

11
 A federated system
• The Internet ties together different networks
– >18,000 ISP networks

user ISP A ISP B

Internet ISP C user

Tied together by IP -- the “Internet Protocol” : a single common

interface between users and the network and between networks

12
 A federated system
 The Internet ties together different networks
 >18,000 ISP networks

• A single, common interface is great for interoperability…

• …but tricky for business

• Why does this matter?

– ease of interoperability is the Internet’s most important goal
– practical realities of incentives, economics and real-world trust
drive topology, route selection and service evolution

13
 Tremendous scale
• 3 Billion users (43% of world population)
• 1+ Trillion unique URLs
• 194 Billion emails sent per day
• 1.75 Billion smartphones
• 1.23 Billion Facebook users
• 50 Billion WhatsApp messages per day
• 2 Billion YouTube videos watched per day
• Routers that switch 92Terabits/second
• Links that carry 400Gigabits/second

14
 Enormous diversity and
dynamic range
• Communication latency: microseconds to seconds (106)
• Bandwidth: 1Kbits/second to 100 Gigabits/second (107)
• Packet loss: 0 – 90%

• Technology: optical, wireless, satellite, copper

• Endpoint devices: from sensors and cell phones to

datacenters and supercomputers
• Applications: social networking, file transfer, skype,
live TV, gaming, remote medicine, backup, IM
• Users: the governing, governed, operators, malicious,
naïve, savvy, embarrassed, paranoid, addicted, cheap … 15
 Constant Evolution
1970s:
• 56kilobits/second “backbone” links
• <100 computers, a handful of sites in the US (and one UK)
• Telnet and file transfer are the “killer” applications

Today
• 100+Gigabits/second backbone links
• 5B+ devices, all over the globe
• 20M Facebook apps installed per day

16
 Asynchronous Operation

• Fundamental constraint: speed of light

• Consider:
– How many cycles does your 3GHz CPU in Cambridge
execute before it can possibly get a response from a
message it sends to a server in Palo Alto?
• Cambridge to Palo Alto: 8,609 km
• Traveling at 300,000 km/s: 28.70 milliseconds
• Then back to Cambridge: 2 x 28.70 = 57.39 milliseconds
• 3,000,000,000 cycles/sec * 0.05739 = 172,179,999 cycles!

• Thus, communication feedback is always dated

17
 Prone to Failure
• To send a message, all components along a path must
function correctly
– software, modem, wireless access point, firewall, links,
network interface cards, switches,…
– Including human operators

• Consider: 50 components, that work correctly 99% of

time  39.5% chance communication will fail

• Plus, recall
– scale  lots of components
– asynchrony  takes a long time to hear (bad) news
– federation (internet)  hard to identify fault or assign blame
18
 An Engineered System
• Constrained by what technology is practical
– Link bandwidths
– Switch port counts
– Bit error rates
– Cost
–…

19
 Recap: The Internet is…

• A complex federation
• Of enormous scale
• Dynamic range
• Diversity
• Constantly evolving
• Asynchronous in operation
• Failure prone
• Constrained by what’s practical to engineer
• Too complex for theoretical models
• “Working code” doesn’t mean much
• Performance benchmarks are too narrow 20
 Performance – not just bits per second
Second order effects
• Image/Audio quality

Other metrics…
• Network efficiency (good-put versus throughput)

• User Experience? (World Wide Wait)

• Network connectivity expectations

• Others? 21
 Channels Concept
(This channel definition is very abstract)
• Peer entities communicate over channels
• Peer entities provide higher-layer peers with
higher-layer channels

A channel is that into which an entity puts symbols and which

causes those symbols (or a reasonable approximation) to appear
somewhere else at a later point in time.

22
 Channel Characteristics
Symbol type: bits, packets, waveform Reliability
Capacity: bandwidth, data-rate, Security: privacy, unforgability
packet-rate Order preserving: always, almost,
Delay: fixed or variable usually
Fidelity: signal-to-noise, bit error rate, Connectivity: point-to-point, to-many,
packet error rate many-to-many
Cost: per attachment, for use

Examples: • A telephone call (handset to

• Fibre Cable handset)
• 1 Gb/s channel in a network • The audio channel in a room
• Sequence of packets • Conversation between two
transmitted between hosts people

23
 Example Physical Channels
these example physical channels are also known as Physical Media
Twisted Pair (TP) Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
• two insulated copper • two concentric copper • high-speed operation
wires conductors • point-to-point
– Category 3: traditional • bidirectional transmission
phone wires, 10 Mbps • baseband: • (10’s-100’s Gps)
Ethernet – single channel on cable • low error rate
– Category 6: – legacy Ethernet • immune to
1Gbps Ethernet • broadband: electromagnetic
• Shielded (STP) – multiple channels on noise
cable
• Unshielded (UTP) – HFC (Hybrid Fiber Coax)

24
 More Physical media: Radio
• Bidirectional and multiple Radio link types:
 terrestrial microwave
access
 e.g. 45 Mbps channels
• propagation environment  LAN (e.g., Wifi)
effects:  11Mbps, 54 Mbps, 200 Mbps
– reflection  wide-area (e.g., cellular)
– obstruction by objects  4G cellular: ~ 4 Mbps
– interference  satellite
 Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
multiple smaller channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low
altitude

25
 Nodes and Links

A B

Channels = Links
Peer entities = Nodes
26
Properties of Links (Channels)

bandwidth delay x bandwidth

Latency

• Bandwidth (capacity): “width” of the links

– number of bits sent (or received) per unit time (bits/sec or bps)
• Latency (delay): “length” of the link
– propagation time for data to travel along the link(seconds)
• Bandwidth-Delay Product (BDP): “volume” of the link
– amount of data that can be “in flight” at any time
– propagation delay × bits/time = total bits in link 27
 Examples of Bandwidth-Delay
• Same city over a slow link:
– BW~100Mbps
– Latency~0.1msec
– BDP ~ 10,000bits ~ 1.25KBytes

• Cross-country over fast link:

– BW~10Gbps
– Latency~10msec
– BDP ~ 108bits ~ 12.5GBytes

28
 Packet Delay
Sending a 100B packet from A to B?

A B
1Mbps, 1ms

time=0
Time to transmit
Time when that
one bit = 1/106s
bit reaches B
Time to transmit 100Byte packet
= 1/106+1/103s
800 bits=800x1/106s

The last bit

reaches B at
TimeDelay =
Packet (800x1/106)+1/103s
Packet Delay = Transmission Delay + Propagation Delay
= 1.8ms
(Packet Size ÷ Link Bandwidth) + Link Latency
29
 Packet Delay
1GB file in 100B packets
Sending a 100B packet from A to B?
1Gbps, 1ms?
A B
1Mbps, 1ms

100Byte packet

107 x 100B packets

The last bit in the file The last bit The last bit
reaches B at Time reaches B at reaches B at
(107x800x1/109)+1/103s (800x1/109)+1/103s (800x1/106)+1/103s
= 8001ms = 1.0008ms = 1.8ms
30
 Packet Delay: The “pipe” view
Sending 100B packets from A to B?

A B
1Mbps, 10ms
Packet Transmission
Time
100Byte packet

100Byte packet BW  time 

Time
100Byte packet

31
 Packet Delay: The “pipe” view
Sending 100B packets from A to B?

1Mbps, 10ms (BDP=10,000)

BW 

time 

1Mbps, 5ms (BDP=5,000) 10Mbps, 1ms (BDP=10,000)

BW 

BW 

time 

time  32
Packet Delay: The “pipe” view
Sending 100B packets from A to B?

1Mbps, 10ms (BDP=10,000)

BW 

time 

What if we used 200Byte packets??

1Mbps, 10ms (BDP=10,000)
BW 

time 

33
Recall Nodes and Links

A B

34
What if we have more nodes?

One link for every node?

Need a scalable way to interconnect nodes 35

Solution: A switched network
Nodes share network link resources

How is this sharing implemented?

36
Two forms of switched networks
• Circuit switching (used in the POTS: Plain
Old Telephone system)

• Packet switching (used in the Internet)

37
 Circuit switching
Idea: source reserves network capacity along a path

10Mb/s?
A B
10Mb/s?

10Mb/s?

(1) Node A sends a reservation request

(2) Interior switches establish a connection -- i.e., “circuit”
(3) A starts sending data
(4) A sends a “teardown circuit” message
38
Old Time Multiplexing

39
 Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM
Example:
Frequency Division Multiplexing
4 users
Radio2 88.9 MHz
Radio3 91.1 MHz
frequency Radio4 93.3 MHz
RadioX 95.5 MHz

time
Time Division Multiplexing
Radio Schedule
…,News, Sports, Weather, Local, News, Sports,…

frequency

time
40
 Time-Division Multiplexing/Demultiplexing

Frames

Slots = 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

• Time divided into frames; frames into slots

• Relative slot position inside a frame determines to which
conversation data belongs
– e.g., slot 0 belongs to orange conversation
• Slots are reserved (released) during circuit setup (teardown)
• If a conversation does not use its circuit capacity is lost!
41
 Timing in Circuit Switching

Circuit
Establishment

Transfer
Information

time

Circuit
Tear-down

42
Circuit switching: pros and cons
• Pros
– guaranteed performance
– fast transfer (once circuit is established)

• Cons

43
 Timing in Circuit Switching

Circuit
Establishment

Transfer
Information

time

Circuit
Tear-down

44
Circuit switching: pros and cons
• Pros
– guaranteed performance
– fast transfer (once circuit is established)

• Cons
– wastes bandwidth if traffic is “bursty”

45
 Timing in Circuit Switching

Circuit
Establishment

Transfer
Information

time

Circuit
Tear-down

46
 Timing in Circuit Switching

Circuit
Establishment

Transfer Information

Circuit
Tear-down

time

47
Circuit switching: pros and cons
• Pros
– guaranteed performance
– fast transfers (once circuit is established)

• Cons
– wastes bandwidth if traffic is “bursty”
– connection setup time is overhead

48
 Circuit switching

Circuit switching doesn’t “route around failure”

49
Circuit switching: pros and cons
• Pros
– guaranteed performance
– fast transfers (once circuit is established)

• Cons
– wastes bandwidth if traffic is “bursty”
– connection setup time is overhead
– recovery from failure is slow

50
 Numerical example
• How long does it take to send a file of 640,000
bits from host A to host B over a circuit-
switched network?
– All links are 1.536 Mbps
– Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec
– 500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit
1 / 24 * 1.536Mb/s = 64kb/s
640,000 / 64kb/s = 10s
Let’s work it out! 10s + 500ms = 10.5s

51
Two forms of switched networks
• Circuit switching (e.g., telephone network)
• Packet switching (e.g., Internet)

52
 Packet Switching
• Data is sent as chunks of formatted bits (Packets)
• Packets consist of a “header” and “payload”*

1. Internet Address
2. Age (TTL)
3. Checksum to protect header
Data Header

payload
01000111100010101001110100011001 header

After Nick McKeown © 2006 53

 Packet Switching
• Data is sent as chunks of formatted bits (Packets)
• Packets consist of a “header” and “payload”*
– payload is the data being carried
– header holds instructions to the network for how to
handle packet (think of the header as an API)

54
 Packet Switching
• Data is sent as chunks of formatted bits (Packets)
• Packets consist of a “header” and “payload”
• Switches “forward” packets based on their
headers

55
 Switches forward packets
GLASGOW
EDINBURGH
switch#4 switch#2

Forwarding Table
111010010 EDIN
Destination Next Hop

GLASGOW 4
OXFORD 5
EDIN 2
UCL 3

switch#5
OXFORD UCL
switch#3
56
 Timing in Packet Switching

h
paylo
d
ad r

time What about the time to process the packet at the switch?
• We’ll assume it’s relatively negligible (mostly true)
57
 Timing in Packet Switching

h
paylo
d
ad r

Could the switch start transmitting as

soon as it has processed the header?
time
• Yes! This would be called
a “cut through” switch 58
 Timing in Packet Switching

h
paylo
d
ad r

We will always assume a switch processes/forwards

time
a packet after it has received it entirely.
This is called “store and forward” switching
59
 Packet Switching
• Data is sent as chunks of formatted bits (Packets)
• Packets consist of a “header” and “payload”
• Switches “forward” packets based on their
headers

60
 Packet Switching
• Data is sent as chunks of formatted bits (Packets)
• Packets consist of a “header” and “payload”
• Switches “forward” packets based on their
headers
• Each packet travels independently
– no notion of packets belonging to a “circuit”

61
 Packet Switching
• Data is sent as chunks of formatted bits (Packets)
• Packets consist of a “header” and “payload”
• Switches “forward” packets based on their
headers
• Each packet travels independently
• No link resources are reserved in advance.
Instead packet switching leverages statistical
multiplexing (stat muxing)
62
 Multiplexing

Sharing makes things efficient (cost less)

• One airplane/train for 100 people
• One telephone for many calls
• One lecture theatre for many classes
• One computer for many tasks
• One network for many computers
• One datacenter many applications
63
Three Flows with Bursty Traffic
Data Rate 1

Time

Data Rate 2

Capacity
Time

Data Rate 3

Time 64
When Each Flow Gets 1/3rd of Capacity
Data Rate 1 Frequent Overloading
Time

Data Rate 2

Time

Data Rate 3

Time 65
When Flows Share Total Capacity

Time

No Overloading
Time

Statistical multiplexing relies on the assumption

that not all flows burst at the same time.

Very similar to insurance,

Time
and has same failure case 66
Three Flows with Bursty Traffic
Data Rate 1

Time

Data Rate 2

Capacity
Time

Data Rate 3

Time 67
Three Flows with Bursty Traffic
Data Rate 1

Time

Data Rate 2

Capacity
Time

Data Rate 3

Time 68
Three Flows with Bursty Traffic

Data Rate 1+2+3 >> Capacity

Time

Capacity
Time

What do we do under overload?

69
Statistical multiplexing: pipe view

pkt tx
time
BW 

time 

70
Statistical multiplexing: pipe view

71
Statistical multiplexing: pipe view

No Overload

72
Statistical multiplexing: pipe view

Queue overload
into Buffer

Transient Overload
Not such a rare event
73
Statistical multiplexing: pipe view

Queue overload
into Buffer

Transient Overload
Not such a rare event
74
Statistical multiplexing: pipe view

Queue overload
into Buffer

Transient Overload
Not such a rare event
75
Statistical multiplexing: pipe view

Queue overload
into Buffer

Transient Overload
Not such a rare event
76
Statistical multiplexing: pipe view

Queue overload
into Buffer

Transient Overload
Not such a rare event
77
Statistical multiplexing: pipe view

Queue overload
into Buffer

Transient Overload
Buffer absorbs transient
Not a rarebursts
event!
78
Statistical multiplexing: pipe view

Queue overload
into Buffer

What about persistent overload?

Will eventually drop packets 79
 Queues introduce queuing delays
• Recall,

packet delay = transmission delay + propagation delay (*)

• With queues (statistical muxing)

packet delay = transmission delay + propagation delay + queuing delay (*)

• Queuing delay caused by “packet interference”

• Made worse at high load

– less “idle time” to absorb bursts
– think about traffic jams at rush hour
or rail network failure

80
(* plus per-hop processing delay that we define as negligible)
 Queuing delay
• R=link bandwidth (bps)
• L=packet length (bits)
• a=average packet arrival
rate

traffic intensity = La/R

 La/R ~ 0: average queuing delay small

 La/R -> 1: delays become large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be serviced, average delay
infinite – or data is lost (dropped).

81
 Recall the Internet federation
• The Internet ties together different networks
– >18,000 ISP networks

user ISP A ISP B ISP C user

We can see (hints) of the nodes and links using traceroute…

82
 “Real” Internet delays and routes
traceroute: rio.cl.cam.ac.uk to munnari.oz.au
(tracepath on pwf is similar)
Three delay measurements from
traceroute munnari.oz.au rio.cl.cam.ac.uk to gatwick.net.cl.cam.ac.uk
traceroute to munnari.oz.au (202.29.151.3), 30 hops max, 60 byte packets
1 gatwick.net.cl.cam.ac.uk (128.232.32.2) 0.416 ms 0.384 ms 0.427 ms
2 cl-sby.route-nwest.net.cam.ac.uk (193.60.89.9) 0.393 ms 0.440 ms 0.494 ms trans-continent
3 route-nwest.route-mill.net.cam.ac.uk (192.84.5.137) 0.407 ms 0.448 ms 0.501 ms link
4 route-mill.route-enet.net.cam.ac.uk (192.84.5.94) 1.006 ms 1.091 ms 1.163 ms
5 xe-11-3-0.camb-rbr1.eastern.ja.net (146.97.130.1) 0.300 ms 0.313 ms 0.350 ms
6 ae24.lowdss-sbr1.ja.net (146.97.37.185) 2.679 ms 2.664 ms 2.712 ms
7 ae28.londhx-sbr1.ja.net (146.97.33.17) 5.955 ms 5.953 ms 5.901 ms
8 janet.mx1.lon.uk.geant.net (62.40.124.197) 6.059 ms 6.066 ms 6.052 ms
9 ae0.mx1.par.fr.geant.net (62.40.98.77) 11.742 ms 11.779 ms 11.724 ms
10 ae1.mx1.mad.es.geant.net (62.40.98.64) 27.751 ms 27.734 ms 27.704 ms
11 mb-so-02-v4.bb.tein3.net (202.179.249.117) 138.296 ms 138.314 ms 138.282 ms
12 sg-so-04-v4.bb.tein3.net (202.179.249.53) 196.303 ms 196.293 ms 196.264 ms
13 th-pr-v4.bb.tein3.net (202.179.249.66) 225.153 ms 225.178 ms 225.196 ms
14 pyt-thairen-to-02-bdr-pyt.uni.net.th (202.29.12.10) 225.163 ms 223.343 ms 223.363 ms
15 202.28.227.126 (202.28.227.126) 241.038 ms 240.941 ms 240.834 ms
16 202.28.221.46 (202.28.221.46) 287.252 ms 287.306 ms 287.282 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 * * *
20 coe-gw.psu.ac.th (202.29.149.70) 241.681 ms 241.715 ms 241.680 ms
21 munnari.OZ.AU (202.29.151.3) 241.610 ms 241.636 ms 241.537 ms
83
 Internet structure: network of networks
• a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
Tier 1 ISP

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP 84
 Internet structure: network of networks
• “Tier-3” ISPs and local ISPs
– last hop (“access”) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and tier- 3 Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISPs are
customers of Tier 1 ISP
higher tier ISPs
connecting them
to rest of
Internet Tier 1 ISP
Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP 85
 Internet structure: network of networks
• “Tier-2” ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs
– Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs

Tier-2 ISPs also

Tier-2 ISP pays tier- Tier-2 ISP peer privately
Tier-2 ISP
1 ISP for with each other.
connectivity to rest Tier 1 ISP
of Internet
 tier-2 ISP is
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

86
 Internet structure: network of networks
• roughly hierarchical
• at center: “tier-1” ISPs (e.g., Verizon, Sprint, AT&T, Cable and
Wireless), national/international coverage
– treat each other as equals

Tier-1 Tier 1 ISP

providers
interconnect
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

87
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint
POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone

peering
… …
.
…
…

to/from customers

88
 Packet Switching
• Data is sent as chunks of formatted bits (Packets)
• Packets consist of a “header” and “payload”
• Switches “forward” packets based on their headers
• Each packet travels independently
• No link resources are reserved in advance. Instead
packet switching leverages statistical multiplexing
– allows efficient use of resources
– but introduces queues and queuing delays

89
 Packet switching versus circuit switching
Packet switching may (does!) allow more users to use network
• 1 Mb/s link
• each user:
– 100 kb/s when “active”
– active 10% of time

N users
• circuit-switching: 1 Mbps link
– 10 users
• packet switching:
– with 35 users, probability Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
> 10 active at same time is
less than .0004
90
 Packet switching versus circuit switching
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?

• 1 Mb/s link
• each user:
– 100 kb/s when “active”
– active 10% of time HINT: Binomial Distribution

• circuit-switching:
– 10 users
• packet switching:
– with 35 users, probability
> 10 active at same time is
less than .0004
91
Circuit switching: pros and cons
• Pros
– guaranteed performance
– fast transfers (once circuit is established)

• Cons
– wastes bandwidth if traffic is “bursty”
– connection setup adds delay
– recovery from failure is slow

92
Packet switching: pros and cons
• Cons
– no guaranteed performance
– header overhead per packet
– queues and queuing delays

• Pros
– efficient use of bandwidth (stat. muxing)
– no overhead due to connection setup
– resilient -- can `route around trouble’
93
 Summary
• A sense of how the basic `plumbing’ works
– links and switches
– packet delays= transmission + propagation +
queuing + (negligible) per-switch processing
– statistical multiplexing and queues
– circuit vs. packet switching

94