CIVE 192

MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS – Week
2
INSTRUCTOR: Andrew MacDonald

NOTE: Most of slide content drawn from Statics and

Mechanics of Materials 5th Ed., R.C. Hibbeler

1
Internal Forces
• As noted last week a body (or object) can be acted
upon by external forces. This results in internal
forces to bring the body to equilibrium.
• Last week we investigated how to determine the
internal shear, moment and axial forces on a beam
by making a theoretical cut and resolving the
equilibrium for:

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Internal Forces
• Like a beam, any solid object can be “cut” to
determine infernal forces.

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Internal Forces
• This body can then be cut again on each face in the
same manner to create a single cubic element of
the object.

4
Stress Element
• The stresses acting on this cube can be used to
represent the stress state acting around a chosen
point of a solid body.

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Stress Element
• There are 3 components acting at each face. are
normal stresses acting on each face, where positive
(or pulling) stresses is tension and negative (or
pushing) stresses is compression.

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Stress Element
• For our purposes, the stress on each face is the
normal force on a surface divided by the area of
that surface:

• Shear forces act tangentially to the surface:

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Comment on Material
Assumptions
• When looking at the behaviour of solid objects, it is
convenient and significantly easier to consider the
material behaviour to be:
• HOMOGENEOUS: The solid object is the same
throughout (although in real life (IRL) there will
always be variations);
• ISOTROPIC: The solid object will act the same way
in all directions (a reasonable assumption for steel
in most cases, not so reasonable when considering
wood which behaves differently when acting
parallel to grain versus acting perpendicular.
Wood is normally considered Anisotropic)
8
Normal Stresses
• If we consider a material to be homogeneous and
isotropic, such as a steel bar with loads applied at
each end, after a small distance away from the load
application we can evaluate the steel bar using the
average normal stress.
N

Where N=P

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Normal Stresses
• Where P considered the external force and N is the
reacting internal force across the cut. Although the
actual stress might vary across the cut we can use
the average stress for most types of analysis. A is
the cross section of the cut.
N

Where N=P

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Normal Stresses
• Looking at an element stressed like this, we see
that stress on top, σ , must be equal and opposite
to the stress on the bottom, σ’.

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Normal Stress Examples

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Normal Stress Examples

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Normal Stress Examples

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Stress components
• In considering forces acting on a face, it must be
broken into components acting normal and
tangentially to the surface
• Consider an element endwise with a load acting at
an angle:

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Stress components
• This force will need to broken into two
components; one acting normal to the surface and
one acting tangentially.

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Stress components
• However these forces acting on the on the top
surface is not the end as it is not in equilibrium in
the y direction or moments about any point (it is
currently moving downwards and spinning counter-
clockwise.

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Shear Stress
• Tangential forces can also be averaged to produce
an average shear force for a surface.

• As can be seen for a given force “F”, for the current

arrangement there is a reaction at each side of the
span of V = F/2.
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Shear Stress
• In looking at a pure shear force, V, we can see the
resulting shear stress will result in a τ acting on 4
faces.

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Shear Stress Example 1

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Shear Stress Example 2

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Shear Stress Example 2

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Allowable Stress Design
• To ensure structural safety is required to restrict the
applied load to one that results in a stress less than
the maximum the member can support.
• One method is the use of a factor of safety, where
there factor of safety is the ratio of the failure
stress over the allowed stress:

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Allowable Stress Design
• In knowing an allowable stress we can use this
value to determine the required area of a member
by rearranging our stress equations:

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Allowable Stress Design Example 1

For P = 400 kN, and = 150MPa, what diameter is

required?

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Allowable Stress Design Example 2
A steel rod is used for the anchorage of a bracket on
an abutment which will be used to support a jack
which will lift a bridge superstructure off its bearings
for repair. For design use P = 425 kN, and = 400MPa
for the rod in tension. The steel rod will be anchored
into the abutment by drilling a hole and using an
epoxy grout with an allowable shear stress of =
8MPa. What is the minimum allowed diameter for
the steel rod? What is the minimum embedment
required to transfer the tension in the rod to the
concrete?

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Comments on ASD Example 2

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Comments on ASD Example 2

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29
Strain
• So far we have only discussed how forces relate to
stresses within a body. When a body is stressed it
will deform. When considering an element its
deformation due to stress with correspond to
stresses on adjacent elements.
• These deformation are call strain, which is
dimensionless.

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Normal Strain
• Strain caused by normal stresses () will cause normal strain
(elongation or contraction).
• Consider an axial load applied to the bar shown below. The
load P, applied to the bar will change its length. Where
initially the unstressed bar (i.e. before the application of
load P) is length , and after being stressed by load P is .

• Based on this the average strain, , is the change in length

divided by the initial length.
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 Shear Strain
• Deformations that change the angle between intersection
lines in a body are considered shear strains.
• In considering an element in the shape of a cube with all
corners at 90ᵒ (or radians) the change in angle at the
corners (in radians) is the shear strain taken as:

• Where is the angle in radians between connecting lines.

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 Tension and Compression Tests
• To understand the behaviour of materials under normal
stresses tension and compression tests are conducted to
understand the relationship between stress and strain.
• Tension and compression tests can show the relationship
between normal stress and normal strain for many
engineering materials (Steel and Concrete being very
common in Civil/Structural Engineering)
• In looking at steel a typical test specimen would be
“waisted” with a mid-section more narrow to ensure failure
at this point.
L0
P P
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Stress-Strain Diagram

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 Engineering Stress
• Stress-Strain Diagrams typically use what is call
“Engineering Stress” and “Engineering Strain”. What
this means is the force is divided by the initial area, A0,
for stress and the initial length, L0, for strain.

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 Elastic Behaviour
• In looking at the Stress-Strain relationship, elastic
behaviour is a section where stress increases linearly
(reasonably so) with strain.
The
Modulus of
Elasticity, E,
is the slope
of this line.
Often it is
given in
MPa for
materials
used by
Civil
Engineers

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 Elastic Behaviour
• It is important to note that as long a material remains in
its elastic region during loading, after loading it will
return to its initial state.

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 Modulus of Elasticity
• The modulus of elasticity is an important property, as
the higher its value the stiffer the material.
• Some typical ranges for Modulus of Elasticity, E, for
engineering materials are:
 Yielding
• When the strain in a material exceeds the yield strain,
the material will undergo permanent deformation. This
is called yielding.

39
 Yielding
• Deformation beyond the yield strain is called plastic
deformation. A notable behaviour is after plastic
deformation occurs, when unloaded it will follow back
down at a slope of the elastic region.

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 Strain Hardening
• After a certain extend of plastic deformation beyond the
yield strain the material will again require additional
load for further deformation. This is strain hardening.
This slope will continue to decrease to zero.

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 Strain Hardening
• Once the slope for strain hardening gets to its maximum
(with a slope of zero) this is considered the material
ultimate stress.

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 Necking
• Strains greater than that at ultimate stress will cause
necking behaviour to occur. This would sort of look like
pulling bubble gum apart. Eventual the specimen will
break.

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Mechanics of Materials, Eighth Edition Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Russell C. Hibbeler All rights reserved.
 True Stress and True Strain
• It should be noted that engineering
stress and strain are not a reflection
of exactly the stress and strain
experienced by the material.
• In looking at stress, engineering
stress uses the initial cross section
area before loading. However, this
area changes as it loaded (smaller
under tension and greater under
compression) which would change
the actual stress.
• As seen at necking the cross section
is much smaller than at the start of
the test (thus increasing stress) 45
 True Stress and True Strain
• Likewise with strain, the length used should not be the
initial length, but the length just before the next
increment of loading.
• The differences between engineering stress and strain
and true stress and strain are very small (and generally
conservative), especially in the elastic region (where we
like our structural materials to normally remain during
routine usage).

46
 Ductility and Brittle
• Any material that can undergo large deformations
before it fractures is called ductile. This is generally
desired by engineers in structures as before failure
there will be notable deformations in the structure to
warn occupants “all is not OK”.
• A brittle material will have barely any deformation
before it fails. Often it will be sudden and catastrophic.

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 Poisson’s Ratio
• When a deformable body is subjected to
a force, not only does it elongate but it
also contracts laterally (or conversely
when compressed, elongate laterally).

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 Poisson’s Ratio
• This ratio is called the Poisson’s Ratio:

• Normally between 0 and 0.5

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