Menschen für Menschen Foundation

AGRO-TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE

AGRO-ECOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Lecture Notes for the course Field Crops Production
and Management
By
Birhanu M
‘’To die of hunger is the bitterest fate of human
kind’!!
 
October,2022

1
 1. Introduction
• 1.1. History of Agriculture and Crop husbandry
• The history of agriculture is as old as the history of civilization.
The earliest man probably lived about 2 million years, but
there were no agricultural communities until about 11,000
years. Before this time, the primitive man lived on hunting of
small animals and collecting wild leaves, roots, seeds,
berries and fruits. As population increased the food supply
was not always sufficiently staple or plentiful to supply his
needs. Consequently, man was forced to begin crop production
by domestication of plants which was essential to supplement
the natural supply from wild. It was the production of crops
which made it possible for the primitive man to settle down
at selected places and resulted in the formation of society
and initiation of civilization. Crop husbandry was
supplemented with domestication of animals which together
derived the wheel of agriculture forward.

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 continued
• Early man must have experimented with the plants that he came
across in these wanderings. By trial and error, he identified
those plants of greatest value to him and found that the seed of
such plants could be saved and planted to produce more plants,
thereby ensuring a continuous food supply.
• In addition, improved cultural methods followed the
observation made by the primitive farmers:
• They found better crops in spots where manure, ashes or
broken limestone had been dropped;
• Where weeds were not allowed to grow;
• Where soils was dark, deep or well drained;
• Where one crop followed certain other crops.

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 continued
• Regardless of its old history, the essential features of crop
production have remained almost unchanged since the down of
history. These features include:
 Gathering and preserving the seeds of desired crop plants
• Destroying other kinds of vegetation grown on the land
• Stirring the soil to form a seedbed for planting
• Planting when the season and weather are right.
• Destroying weeds
• Protecting the crop from natural enemies.
• Gathering, processing and storing the products. Science
and technology have made each of the steps easier, but
have not entirely eliminated any of them.

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 continued
 Through time, man has discovered farm machine, which merely
speed his hand doing or those things which enable him to do the
work better. Cultivated plants are products of human
achievements and discoveries, which have enabled man to
provide his food, and fiber needs with progressively less labor.
The change over from hunter-gatherer to full time agriculturalist
must have been very gradual and this stage might be called
“incipient” agriculture.

5
continued

 (Agriculture is the science and practice of activities

related to production; processing; marketing; distribution;
utilization; and trade of food, feed, and fibre.
 But it also includes family and consumer sciences,
nutrition, food science and engineering, agricultural
economics and other social sciences, forestry, wildlife,
fisheries, aquaculture, floriculture, veterinary medicine,
and other environmental and natural resource sciences.
 It also encompasses efforts to develop agricultural policies
and institutions, such as research and extension services,
that support agriculture and improve productivity to
catalyze rural economic growth.)

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 continued
• or
• Agriculture is generally the deliberate tending of crops and
rearing of animals for human use. Generally, agriculture is
carried out for four main reasons:
• Food production
• Fiber production
• Bio-fuel production
• Pharmatical

Of these four, the production of food for human consumption is by

far the most important. However, recently due to an increase
price of natural petroleum, the production of bio-fuel plant
becomes increased.

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 continued
• 1.2. Food production and population growth
The first and foremost global concern today is the growth of
population, particularly in the developing countries. Hunger and
malnutrition remains the most alarming problem facing the
majority of the world’s poor. Despite general improvement in
food availability, health and social services, hunger and
malnutrition exist in some or the other form in almost all the
countries. Therefore, food security can not be addressed in
isolation unless series efforts are made to control the population
explosion.
According to the latest United Nations Population Projection, the
global world population is set to rise from close to 7 billion in
2010 to about 9.5 billion by 2050.Then it is expected to
stabilize. Virtually all of the additional 2.15 billion will be in the
developing countries. Population trends, if remaining as such,
can lead in 2050 to a global food deficit of 700 million tones.
•  

8
continued
 The nations are classified into two based on the status of food
production. Those nations that produce adequate food or plant
products to supply his reasonable diets for its population. There
are nations that cannot produce adequate plant products to
supply his reasonable diets for its populations.
 Nowadays population in most developing countries is
increasing at faster rate than the food production growth rate.
In Ethiopia, population growth rate is about 3 per cent per year
while food production growth rate is about 1.57 per cent per
year. This indicates the imbalance between domestic grain
food production and population growth rate as a result of
which domestic grain food production (supply) has failed to
meet the food requirement of the population. This situation is
particularly worst in most developing countries .

9
cont
 Nowadays population in most developing countries is
increasing at faster rate than the food production growth
rate. In Ethiopia, population growth rate is about 3 per
cent per year while food production growth rate is about
1.57 per cent per year. This indicates the imbalance
between domestic grain food production and population
growth rate as a result of which domestic grain food
production (supply) has failed to meet the food
requirement of the population. This situation is
particularly worst in most

10
cont
 developing countries Asia, Latin America and Africa.
Such unlimited rate of population growth has also a
significant impact on natural resource degradation (loss
of top soil and deforestation) and result in extreme
poverty.

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continued
• Land degradation is a terrifying problem in Ethiopia. Forest
cover is reducing at a rate of 20, 000 km2 per year, and nearly
half of the country’s area is subject to severe soil erosion with
annual soil losses rate of 42t/ hectare/year of cultivated land.
•  State of Poverty (state of being poor): Poverty occurs in a
situation where population number increases faster but the
available resource is limited. Indicators for poverty
assessment: Income level, access to basic needs (food, cloth &
shelter), infant & maternal mortality rate, School enrolment,
Malnutrition (prevalence) etc…. Poverty has close
relationship with food insecurity.
• At the dawn of new millennium, the evidence is overwhelming
that an agricultural transformation is essential to meet the
global challenges of feeding the world’s growing population,
protecting the environmental degradation and reducing the
poverty.

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 continued
• 1.3. The State of Food Self-Sufficiency and Food Security
•  Food self-sufficiency: can be defined in two ways. In
broad sense it can be defined as the ability of the nation to
provide 100% of its staple food through local production or
storage under all weather probabilities. In reality it is not
always possible to produce or supply all the required staple
food by the nation through local production regardless of
some of the unpredictable weather probabilities. Therefore,
in its narrow sense food self-sufficiency is the ability of the
nation to provide 100% of its stable food through local
production or storage except under extreme unfavorable
environmental conditions where commercial food import or
aid fulfills the gap.

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 continued
• Food Security: is the physical and economical access by all people at all times
to have enough food for an active and healthy life. The core concept of food
security is identified as:
 adequacy of food supply or availability;
• stability of supply or supply without fluctuations from season to season;
• accessibility or affordability and
• Quality of supply.
•  
• Food security was conceived(considered) as the adequacy of food supply at
global or national level favoring the macro-level food production and supply
oriented variables that over looked the micro level food access. Therefore,
attaining the macro level food self-sufficiency does not ensure the attachment
of household food security. That is the global or national level food
availability does not guarantee food acquisition at sub-national community and
household level. Many countries that used to be considered food self sufficient
were found to be food insecure due to the fact that it lacks an efficient food
system or the capacity to raise the level of food entitlement.

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continued
• Food and Nutrition Security exists when all people at all times have
physical, social and economic access to food, which is safe and consumed
in sufficient quantity and quality to meet their dietary needs and food
preferences, and is supported by an environment of adequate sanitation,
health services and care, allowing for a healthy and active life.
• 1.4. The Nature of Ethiopian Agriculture and State of Food Production
 Ethiopia is one of the ancient agrarian country in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Agriculture has always been and remains the mainstay
in Ethiopia economy. It accounts for about 40 per cent of Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), provides employment for 80 per cent
of the population, generate more than 60% of the export
earning(16 percent for coffee, 33 percent for oil seeds,) and it supplies
about 70% of the country’s raw material requirement for agro-
based industries. According to the National Account estimates
of agriculture, crop production is estimated to contribute on
average 60% to the over all agricultural productivity. It also has
the largest livestock population in Africa (estimated 114million).

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continued
• Despite the long tradition of farming, agricultural production and
productivity remains much below the national requirement. The
overall agricultural growth is not encouraging and due to these and
other factors food shortage has been high and chronic during the last
three decades. As a result, the country remained the largest recipients
of food aid in Sub-Saharan Africa.
• In fact, Ethiopia has suitable agro-ecology to grow different types of
crops. With this considerable potential, the country had been self-
sufficient in major stable food and was classified as net exporter of
food grains till the late 1950s. However, since early 1960s domestic
food grain production was unable even to meet the basic minimum
food grain requirement of the Ethiopian people and the gap has been
partially filled by both commercial import and food aid. The
production of food grains registered a downward trend for several
years.

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continued
 During 1980s, it decreased on average by 1.1% per annum. Sharp decline
particularly observed during the severe drought years 1984/85 (4.46 million
tons) and 1985/86 (5 million tons).
  The total domestic food grain production rose from 6.54 million tons in
1980/81 to 10.32 million tons in 1996/97, which composed about 57.8%.
Even though the gross domestic food grain production had increased by
half, per capita food production decreased by 0.3%. Annual average growth
rate of domestic food grain production stood at 0.70% during the period
1980/81-1990/91.
  When we look at the empirical situation, the national food
grain production in 2001/2002 as compared with food grain
production of 1960/61 (42 years) increased from 5.66 to
11.6 million tons, in which annual average growth rate
constitute about 1.54%. Nevertheless, the per capita food
grain production during the same period dramatically

17
continued
declined from 240.2 kg to 169.01 kg. These indicate about 0.47% average
annual decrease. Therefore, domestic food supply has failed to meet the food
requirement of the country. The national average calorie intake of 1954 kcal
per adult person per day is well below the recommendation of World Health
Organization (WHO), which is 2200 kcal per day.
1.5. Problems of Ethiopian Agriculture
•The major problems of Ethiopian agriculture that hold back the production
and productivity of the sector not to exceed the rate of population growth by a
reasonable margin are:

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continued
• 1.5.1. Technological and environmental challenges
•  Backward agricultural production practices:
• Use of traditional farm tools and implements
• Low level use of improved agricultural inputs such as fertilizer, improved seed,
pesticides, chemicals
• Inappropriate and inadequate post-harvest technologies
• These all may related to the lack of substantial investment in agricultural research
to generate new technologies, poor/weak linkage between research and extension to
transfer the available improved agricultural technologies to the end users (improved
varieties, proper rate and time of fertilizer application, improved farm implements
and technologies to control pests, diseases and weeds).
--  Recurrent drought
– A large part of the country has been adversely affected by a serious drought.
– Poor transport facility for distributing farm inputs and to connect the product to
fair market.
– Declining of soil fertility: No or little use of manure because of shortage of fuel
wood and farmers are obliged to use manure for fuel.

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continued
– Dependency on rain-fed agriculture and limited use of irrigation
– Soil degradation and desertification
•  
– Poor soil drainage (water logging)
•  
• 1.5.2. Demographic challenges
•  
• One of the major causes for food crises in Ethiopia is rapid population
growth. In 2002, the Ethiopian population is about 90 million, with annual
growth rate of 3.4%; it is expected to double in 23 years. The growing
population pressure in rural areas and the limited possibility of expanding
the total crop land has generally led to a reduction per capita land size
available for farming. Due to population pressure, over cultivation,
deforestation, overgrazing, decline of productive farmlands by settlement
and urbanization, rural-urban migration and unemployment have been
dramatically increased. Households with small plots seldom produce
enough grain to meet their consumption requirements. Subsistence and
survival are their overriding concern. Nearly all farm produce as well as
non-farm income obtained is devoted to food and there is no surplus for
investment and input purchase

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 continued
 1.6. Means of increased food production
 The problem of world food production can be solved by
 1.6.1. Managing population growth:
 The main reason for deficit situation in world food supply and extreme
poverty is the unlimited and rapid rate of population increase. It results not
only in inadequate supply of food but also in shortage of other basic needs
and social services such as health and schools. Therefore, there should be
strong policy to manage population and family growth in accordance with the
specific situation of the country with regard to the available natural resource
and economic development.

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continued
• 1.6.2. Increasing agricultural productivity.
• There are different possibilities to increase agricultural productivity
•  A. Extensification or expansion of cultivated land.
• In traditional agriculture food production can be increased by
cultivating new land. This simple means of increasing food
production best implemented in areas where there is potential total
arable land or in countries were there is unlimited land economy. It is
seldom possible in many countries of the world which have now
essentially fixed land economy. In Ethiopia out of the total arable
land (64% of the total land of Ethiopia) only 21% (17 million ha) is
currently under cultivation but estimates indicate that more than
78.9million ha (65%) of the land is fertile for agricultural
purposes out of 111,211,200ha or 1,112112km2 areas of the
country. Therefore, Ethiopia has got a great potential for expansion
of arable land, but it requires proper understanding of which should
actually be used for expansion of cultivation.

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 cont

 Major Rivers of Ethiopia

 Water resources
 Ethiopia has nine major rivers and twelve big lakes. Lake
Tana, for example, in the north is the source of the Blue
Nile. However, apart from the big rivers and major
tributaries, there is hardly any perennial flow in areas
below 1,500 m. While the country’s annual renewable
freshwater potential is 122 billion m3, only 3 percent of
this amount remains in the country. It is estimated that
54.4 billion m3 of surface runoff and 2.6 billion m3 of
groundwater can be developed for utilization.

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 continued
 B. Intensification or increase production per unit area.
 This can be achieved by using improved agricultural technologies
such as improved or modern farm implements and machines,
genetically improved crop varieties, appropriate agronomic
practices such as good land preparation and drainage, proper time
of sowing, plant population, appropriate time, rate and type of
fertilizers and good control of pests (diseases, insects and weeds).
 C. Improving our food consumption habit.
 This can be through the search of new sources of food from fungi
and bacteria and expanding technologies to utilize food from
seas, oceans, lakes and rivers. It is also essential to widen our
sources of nutrition rather than concentrating on only limited
crops.

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continued
• Evaluation of agricultural systems of Ethiopia from imperial, Derg regime
up to EPRDF
• Imperial or Hailesilase regime
• Development of agriculture was retarded by a number of factors;
• Tenancy
• Land reform problems (aristocrat & church), tenants provide 50% of their
produce as rent.
• 1972-1974 there was drought & famine
• Imperial refused to assist rural Ethiopian & tried to cover up the crisis by
refusing international aid, around 200,000 Ethiopian died or perished.
• 1971minimum package program was introduced .It includes facilitation of
credit for the purchase of items such as fertilizers, improved seeds and
pesticides.
• Imperial government policy permitting investors to import fertilizers, pesticides,
tractors and combiners with duty free.
• From 1965-1973----->annual rate of agriculture production is 2.1% while
population growth rate 2.6%.

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continued
• 1973-1980-> agricultural production increased at an average
annual rate of 0.6% but decreased an average annual rate of
2.1% between 1980 -1987 and during the same period
population number increased at an average annual rate of
2.6%.
• Poor performance of agriculture durin Derg regime was
related due to several factors
• Drought
• Government policy of controlling prices
• Unstable political climate
• Dislocation of rural community caused by resettlement, villagization and
conscription of young farmers to meet military obligations.
• Land tenure difficulties & land fragmentation
• Lack of inputs b/c country’s budget was allotted for ammunition purchase
• 1990-1991 Derg decision to allow free movement of goods to lift price controls
increase the agriculture production by 3%.

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 continued
• EPRDF
• In Ethiopian history, there is no government which invested too much of political
economy to agricultural sector.
• Key policies
• Agricultural development led industrialization & extension program since early 90’s.it
takes agriculture as an engine of the national economy growth.
• Sustainable development & poverty reduction program 2002/03-2004.
• Food security program(GoE,2003)
• Plan for accelerated & sustained development to end poverty 2005/06-2009/10.
• Productive safety net program since 2005
• Growth & transformation plan 1(GTP-1) 2010-2015.
• Ethiopia’s agricultural sector policy & investment framework(MOA, 2010).
• Climate resilience green economy –GOE, since 2012.
• Growth & transformation plan 2 (post 2015)

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 continued

 Increase in consumption 2006G.C/50G.C

 Calories consumption World Developed countries Developing countries
 (kcal per person per day)
 2772/ 3070 3360/3490 2619/3000
 Meat consumption(Kg/yr) 39/50 80/92 28/42
 Cereals consumption(kg/yr) 158/160 167/166 155/158

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continued
• Chapter 2. Crop Production as an Art, as a Science and Business
Crop production encompasses the integration of knowledge from
many agricultural sciences to develop an ideal production
technology for any given situation of land, water and other natural
resources.
•  Crop production is a broad subject of agriculture which
teaches:
• What crops should be cultivated in a particular climate
and in each kind of soil;
• What management practices are to be followed in order to
realize highest yields from each units of land, water and
other natural resources with a minimum of immediate or
future expense in soil management and production inputs.

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continued
• Therefore, the objective of crop production is an essence to realize
highest possible yields and quality of utilizable products as
economically and efficiently as possible for sustainable agriculture.
• 2.1. Crop production as an art
•  
• Crop production has evolved over the ages. Crop production is
considered as an art because the crop production activities in
primitive cultures (selection of specific crops or specific varieties,
prepare the land prior to planting, plant in right season, protect the
crop from pests (weeds, insects and diseases) and adopt techniques to
increase production) have been developed over years through trial
and error, observation, and accumulated experience without any
formal education. These artistic values are perpetuated in modern
agriculture but at improved levels.

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continued
• 2.2. Crop Production as Science
•  
• Crop production as a science started with the built up of coordinating knowledge derived
from natural and biological sciences including Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Botany,
Zoology, and Microbiology, at the end of 19th century. It considered as a science because
it employs scientific skills/methods to develop new technologies of agricultural systems
such as new strains or varieties of crops, or generate improved knowledge of agricultural
practices and innovative techniques and manage them under varying conditions.
•  
• To establish new facts and new applications of known facts by means of the scientific
method, the following steps must be taken
•  
 Problem identification
 Formulation of hypothesis
 Planning an experiment to objectively test the hypothesis
 Careful observation
 Collection of data from the experiment
 Data analysis
 Interpretation of the experimental results

•  
•  

31
contiued
 Crop producers, like any scientist can use the scientific method
as a guide to solve problems. The art of crop production
gradually became a science with the following developments:
  
 Plant pathologists and entomologists have found ways to
control plant diseases and insect pests more effectively.
 Chemists and agronomists have found supplements for
the manure and ashes formerly used for fertilizers.
 Many new crop varieties and hybrids developed by plant
breeders and agronomist.

32
contiued
• Herbicides were invented to control weeds
• Scientific agriculture has been started during the
emergence of the science of agronomy, but before this,
crop production was entirely an art.
•  
• In general term, agronomy is defined as the principle and
practice of crop production and land management. More
precisely, agronomy may be defined as a science of
integration and interrelation of crops with environment for
maximum crop productivity on a sustainable basis in
space and time.
• Or Agronomy is defined as crop production & its
scientific management.
•  
•

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continued
 Crop production today is rapidly changing from historic times
in:
 Farm machines speedup the process or enables the producers to
better accomplish tasks;
 Electronic technologies enable the producers to manage fields
on site-specific bases. e. g. Using global position system (GPS)
and remote sensing equipments on the farm for precise
application of fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides;
 Use of biotechnology in changing the very genetic makeup of
the plant grown.

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continued
 2.3. Crop production as a business
 The entire produce and inputs of agriculture are linked
to marketing which bring the question of profit and loss
as a result of which crop production can be regarded as a
business. Therefore, the anticipated profitability of a
particular crop production by farmers often overrides the
decisions that ought to be made on good agronomic bases.
The producer should be able to make the right choices in
terms of selecting and managing the appropriate
production inputs.


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 continued
 There are factors within, modified and outside producers
control
 Within
 E.g selection of site, selecting time of ploughing, weeding,
harvesting etc
 Modified
 e.g, Soil infertility, temperature etc
 Outside his control
 E.g Tax, infrastructure, natural hazards or climatic variability
etc

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Chapter 3. Origin of cultivated crops
Definition of center of origin
 A geographical area where a group of organism either
domesticated or wild existed with their distinctive property.
 Domestication: the process of bringing a wild species to a
household or cultivated purpose. It leads to fundamental
genetic change.
 All cultivated crop plants were domesticated from their wild
species. Centers of origin are characterized as having climatic
conditions that favor the survival of the widest array of
forms and types of crop plants.

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continued
• Early farmers unknowingly became plant breeders by
preserving the seeds of plants most suitable for their needs
in preference to those less suitable plant types. Even
today, centers of origin are important to plant breeders
because of the diversity of plant types that may possess
variable traits to be used in plant breeding. Most of the
domesticated crops were introduced into new areas from
their center of origin by migrating human beings.
•  
• Nicolas Vavilov(1887-1943)- a Russian Scientists was a
pioneer in locating the center of origin of each crop plants
by traveling across the world and accordingly he proposed
primary and secondary center of diversity.

38
continued
 Vavilov noted that the center of origin of cultivated crops
occurred mostly in mountainous region between the tropics of
Capricorn(23 degree 28’ south of equator and 45 degree north
of equator. Why only this? B/C it may be due to restricted
access by people.
 Vavilov considered as a rule the primary focus of crop origins
were in mountainous regions characterized by the presence of
dominant allele. He puts his work in the book entitled with
‘’phytogeographical basis for plant breeding’ in 1935 he
summarize and put together all his works in center of origin.

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continued
• 3.1. Primary center
• It is center of origin or center of dominant gene. It is the place where the crop is
evolved from wild ancestors.
• 3.2. Secondary center
•  
• It is centers of recessive gene. When a crop is taken out of the primary center then
another center of diversity may be developed due to favorable conditions e.g. barely
is evolved in Middle East but Ethiopia is center of diversity.
•  
• Vavilov (1926) reported the following centers of origin
•  
• 1. Chinese center(138): China is one of the richest regions contributing to many
important crops such as Brassica campestris, Glycine max, and secondary center for
Oryza sativa and Zea mays etc.
• 2. Indo - Malaya center(55): This region is important center for Oryza spp and
Saccharum officinarum.
•

40
continued
• 3. Indian center(117): Important crops from this region are Oryza sativa,
Phaseolus mungo, Piper spp., Saccharum sinense.
• 5
• 4. Central Asian Center(42): Allium cepa, A. sativum, Daucus carota, Lathyrus
sativus, Vicia faba are important crops from this center.
• 5. Near Estern Center(83): This is the center for Brassica oleracea , Hordeum
vulgare, Medicago spp., Triticum spp
• 6. Mediterranean Center(84): Many crops have been domesticated in this region:
Avena spp., Beta vulgaris, Brassica napus, Brassica oleracea, Trifolium spp etc.
• 7. Ethiopian Center(38): The crops which is originated in this center are Coffee
spp, Sorghum bicolor, Sesamum indicum, durum wheat, barely, chickpea, lentil,
teff, finger millet.
• 8. Central American and Mexican center(49): Only a few (but important) crops
were domesticated in this region: Agave spp., Capsicum spp., Gossypium spp.,
Ipomoea batatas, Phaseolus spp. and Zea mays.
• 9. South American center(62): This is the primary center of origin of a number of
tuber crops such as Oxalis tuberosa, Solanum spp., and Ullucus tuberous. It is the
secondary center of diversity for Zea mays.

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continued
 3.3. Criteria for defining center of origin
  1. Wild form of the species must exist in the area.
 2. Wider genetic variability should be found in the area.
 Reasons to know the center of origin of a given crop
 a) To know the center of great genetic diversities which
are helpful for breeding purpose
 b) For pest control purpose
 3.4. Dispersal of Domesticated Crops
  The dispersal of crop plants from their center of origin to
other parts of the world was either natural or through the
agency of man. The dispersal of crop plants by man
must have taken place in several phases;

42
continued
 At the early stages in the domestication of crops they
spread with the expansion and migration of primitive
agricultural communities,
 A second and more important phase in crop dispersal was
associated with very early trade, with conquests and with
the more widespread human migrations taking place
between he different parts of the Old World,
 The third and most important phase in the

43
 cont
 history of crop dispersal began with attempts by
Europeans to find a sea route to India and
 The most recent developments in the dispersal of crops have
been associated with the expansion of agriculture research
with international cooperation. This has included the
exchange of seeds, or even the exchange of large collections
of germplasm, between agricultural research centers in
different part of the world.

44
Chapter 4. Classification of crops
 Definition
A systematic arrangement of plants of all categories on the
basis of morphological/ anatomical characteristics,
similarities in plant parts, their agricultural or economic
use, their life habit or cycle, season of cultivation and
special purpose.
 Methods
 1) Botanical
 2) Agronomic/Economic
 3) Life cycle
 4) Season of cultivation
 5) Special purpose

45
continued
 Botanical classification or also known as scientific or
binomial classification is based on similarities of plant parts,
morphological characteristics. This means of categorizing crop
plant was first applied by the Swedish Botanist Carl
Linnaeus in 1753. In botanical classification each plant
species is given a binomial (two) name: the genus and species.
The first name (letter) is the genus name and the latter
indicates species name.

46
cont
 The binomial system of classification provides a
practically international designation or nomenclature
for a plant. This system of classification is universally
accepted and has many advantages:
 It is accurate and reduces giving multiple name for the
same crop plants and no two plants will have the same
scientific name.

47
continued

 It indicates the relationship between plants: for instance

scientific name with the same genus are derived from the
same wild ancestor :
  Example: Solanium tubersum - potato
 Solanium melanogaster - egg plant

48
cont

 These two crops have the same genus name and

therefore are derived from the same ancestor or have
similar genetic background. There are seven general
taxonomic groups in botanical or scientific classification
of plants. These are kingdom (most inclusive group),
Division, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. Each
group is called taxon.

49
continued
 Binomial system of nomenclature is based on these two groups (genus & species
name).
 Kingdom plantae >300,000 species

Bryophytes
(non vascular Tracheophyta
plant) (Vascular plant)

Seedless
e.g fern, Seeded
horsetail, club
mosses

Magnoliphyta

Pinophyta
(Gymnosperms)
Liliopsidae
(monocots) Magnoliopsi
dae(Dicots)

50
continued
 Flowering plants belong to the division magnoliphyta:
 Division magnoliphyta consists of plants that bear true seeds.
This is the most important division interms of crop production
 Because practically all economically important plants used for
food, feed & fiber belong to this group. The division is further
separated into two classes:
 Liliopsidae (have one cotyledon-monocots)
 Magnoliopsidae (have two cotyledon-dicots)

Selected field crop families in the division magnoliphyta are

presented below:
A)Monocots

51
continued
 i) Poaceae
 Interms of number the grass family is the largest flowering
plants. It is also the most widely distributed.
 E.g Wheat, barley, oat, rice, corn, grasses etc
 ii) Amaryllidaceae
 Plants with tunicate bulbs characterize this family
 E.g onion, garlic, chives etc
 iii) Aracaceae (palm family)
 They are tropical & subtropical in their adaptation.
 E. g coconut, palm etc
 B) Dicots
 i) Brassicacea (mustard family)

52
continued
 It is noted for its pungent herbs
 E.g cabbage, radish, cauliflower, broccoli etc
 ii) Fabaceae (legume family)
 It is characterized by flowers that may be regular or irregular.
 Important sources of protein
 E.g Pea, groundnut, clover, broad bean etc
 iii) Solanaceae
 It is noted that the poisonous alkaloids.
 Many of them produces nicotine, salanine, atropine etc
 E.g Tobacco, potato, tomato, pepper & eggplant

53
continued
 iv) Euphobiaceae
 Produce milky latex and includes a number of poisonous
species
 E.g cassava, caster bean, cactus, Jatropha etc
 V) Asteraceae (sunflower family)
 2nd largest number of flowering plant species found in this
family.
 E.g sunflower
 Vi) Apiaceae(carrot family)
 Plants in this family usually produce flowers that are arranged
in umbels. E.g carrot, parsley, celery etc

54
continued
 Vii) Cucurbitaceae
 Characterized by prostrate or climbing herbaceous vines with
tendrils fleshy fruits containing numerous seeds.
 E.g pumpkin, melon, cucumber, squash etc
 Viii) Convolvulaceae
 It can be recognized by their funnel shaped radially
symmetrical corolla.
 Leaves and starchy tuberous roots of some species are used as
food stuffs. E.g sweet potato, water spianch etc

55
continued
 Classifying and naming of a plant is a science governed by
international rules
 Who decides what name is to be given for a particular pant so
it is a universally recognizable?
 The science of plant taxonomy is coordinated by the
international board of plant nomenclature, which makes the
rules.
 Rules of writing binomial name (binomial nomenclature)
 It must be underlined or written in italics because the words
are non english.
 The genus name must start with upper case letter and the
species always starts with a lower case letter.

56
continued
 Frequently, the scientist who first named the plant adds his
or her initial to the binomial name.
 E.g Glycine max L. Merr (for Merrill)
 The letter ‘L’ indicates the linnaeus first named the plant
species it revised later, the person responsible is identified
after ‘L’.
 The generic name may be abbreviated and can also stand
alone. However, the species name can not stand alone.
 E.g Zea mays or Z.mays but not Zea m.
 The cultivar or variety name may be included in the
binomial name.
 E.g Lycoperiscum esculentum Mill cv Big red
 Or L. esculentum Mill cv Big red

57
continued
 The cultivar name, however, is not written in italics because it
is an English word.
 4.2. Agronomic / economic use
 Crop plants may be classified according to agronomic use
as follows:
 Cereals
 Pulses
 Forages
 Fiber
 Root crops
 Tuber crops
 Oil crops
58
continued
 Aromatics and medicinal plants
 Sugar crops
 Drug crops
 Beverage crops
 Vegetable crops
 Fruit crops
 Latex crops
 4.3.Special purpose classification
 i) Cover crops or non cash crops
 Those crops which may be planted during a time when normal
cropping would be uneconomical or crops grown between the
regular cropping cycles for the purpose of protecting the soil
from erosion and other adverse weather.

59
continued
 The crop can be grazed by livestock or ploughed under as a
green manure to fertilize the soil for normal cropping. Cover
crops are used to improve soil fertility and protect uncropped
soil from erosion.
 E.g many annuals like grass, legume etc
 2) Green manure crops
 Those plants grown and ploughed under the soil while still
young and green for the purpose of soil fertility.
 E.g many legumes
 3) Catch (emergency) crops
 Those crops which are planted lately to substitute the regular
crop or after the regular crop failed.
 Short season crops (fast growing)
60
continued
 E.g millets, katumani etc
 4) Trap crops
 Those plants grown to protect the circumference of the field
from attacking the nearby crops.
 E.g Growing tall plants around a field beans, peppers, squash
etc
 5) Silage crops
 Those plants in which they are preserved in a succulent
condition by partial fermentation.
 They include corn, sorghum , millets etc
 6) Soilage crops
 Those plants which are harvested and feed green or green crops
cultivated for fodder.
61
continued
 7) Companion crops
 Those plants which are grown to secure a return from the land.
 E.g Grain crops vs oil crops, grain crops vs legume etc
 8) Classification based on life cycle
 Plants may be classified according to the duration of their life
cycle. On the basis life cycle crop plants may be classified as
annual, biennial, perennials
 9) Classification based on season of cultivation
 Belg
 Meher
 Tsedey(sept, oct, nov)

62
continued
Chapter 5. Environmental Factors Affecting Crop Production
Definition
Environment: the aggregate of all external factors affecting the growth and
development of crop plants.
E.g climate, soil, biotic factors etc
Hereditary material: the genetic makeup of crop plants transferred from
parent to offspring. It determines the high yielding potential of a given variety
of a crop.
Crop production is the function of the environment within the crop grows
and the hereditary materials of the crop itself.
Many factors (>52) influencing the crop growth have been identified,
however, four groups of the factors largely determined whether certain crops
can be economically produced in a given regions and their distribution. These
are

63
continued
 1) Climatic factor
 2)Edaphic factor
 3)Socioeconomic factor
 4)Biotic factor
 1) Climatic factor
 Climate is the totality of weather over a large area or it is a
long time weather average while weather is the day to day
state of atmosphere and pertains for a short term changes in
conditions of heat, moisture and air movement.
 Difference between weather and climate
 Weather
 Refers to a specific instant of heat changing and differs from
time to time.

64
continued
 Climate
 Refers to a specific instant of heat for a large region and for a
long period of time.
 Information obtained from both climate and weather are
employed in farm decision making.
 E.g Choice of farming systems and crops- climate
 Choice of farm equipments--climate
 Drought proneness of the region-- climate
 Timing of land preparation---weather
 Planting date-weather
 Climatic factors which affects crop production are:
 A)Temperature
 B) Light energy

65
continued
 C) Moisture
 D) Atmospheric humidity
 E) Wind
 F) Composition of the atmospheric air
 A)Temperature
 It is a measure of the intensity of heat energy.
 Plant growth is greatly influenced by temperature.
 Extreme temperatures are destructive to plant growth.
 Plants are adapted to a wide range of temperature.
 Temperature directly affects photosynthesis, enzymatic activity, transpiration
etc.
 Some species are capable of growing in extremely low or extremely high
temperature conditions. The limit of survival of living organism has generally
been reported to be between -35 up to +75 degree centigrade. The range of
growth for most agricultural plants, however, is usually narrower perhaps
between 5 up to 40 degree centigrade. It is called biokinetics range (active
66life is possible).
continued
 Every plant community has its own minimum, optimum and
maximum temperature known as their cardinal points or
cardinal temperature.
 Optimum temperature: the temperature at which a plant
functions best. The ideal temperature conditions for crop
productions are in the range of 18.3-23.9 degree centigrade.
 Maximum temperature: the temperature at which crop plants
can tolerate without injury. The maximum temperature
tolerance varies greatly with the crop species.
 At 40 degree centigrade changes to begin in the protoplasm
that are detrimental to the life of most plants which succumb at
temperature between 45-55 degree centigrade.

67
continued
 Minimum temperature: the temperature at which below
which crop plants process will be affected. It is approximately
the freezing point of water.
 Effects of abnormal temperature
 1)Chilling injury: plants adapted for warm conditions if
exposed to prolonged chilling at temperature above freezing
point are affected by retarded growth and killed. This type of
low temperature injury is often called chilling injury.
 Chilling is particularly damaging to chloroplast resulting in
inhibition of photosynthesis.
 E.g: Temperature of 0.5 up to 5 degree centigrade for 23 up
to 36 hours was fatal or markedly injuries to beans, cotton,
sudan grass.

68
continued
 Species that are slightly injured include:
 Maize, pumpkin, sorghum, water melon while soybean.
Tomato showed no evidence for low temperature injury.
 2) Freezing injury
 This generally occurs in temperate regions.
 Many plant tissues killed when they are exposed to
temperature which are low and enough to cause ice (<0 degree
centigrade).Water is frozen into ice crystals in the intercellular
spaces at very low temperature.
 Freezing injury results in
 Disruption of cellular organization
 Precipitation of enzyme and finally cells die

69
continued
 Contrary to above certain processes are prompted as
temperature decrease towards the freezing point. E.g
Vernalization--->exposing of plants to low temperature for a
few weeks results in the formation of flowers.
 There are different positive responses to low temperature
 Vernalization
 Breaking seed dormancy by exposure of moist seeds to low
temperature
 Breaking bud dormancy
 (dormancy is a condition in which the seed became quiescent
because of unsatisfactory environmental conditions).

70
continued
 Heat injury
 High temperature facilitates high respiration rates and the plant
faces incipient starvation. For growth to occur photosynthesis
should be greater than respiration.
 High temperature causes excessive rate of transpiration and
causes death of leaves or branches
 Defoliation and premature dropping of fruits
 High temperature also causes pollen sterility
 Direct thermal effect upon protoplasm
 Change in enzymatic structure and function
 Temperature may also change composition of soil air.
 i.e As temperature increase, microorganism activity increase
and increase carbon dioxide content of soil.

71
continued
 Mechanism of cold temperature tolerance
 When crop plants exposed to low temperature for a long period
of time, they will produce a mechanism by which to reduce the
effect. These are:
 1) Hardening/acclimation
 Involves specific changes in the structure of cells. These are
increase the permeability of cytoplasmic membranes especially
for certain charged molecules. Cellular characteristics
resulted from cytoplasmic changes are:
 Increase sugar or solute substances
 Decrease the water content
 Increase osmotic pressure (increase the concentration of
dissolved substance in cytoplasm).

72
continued
 2) Dormancy
 Plants became dormant on the onset of cold temperature.
 These life process are reduced to a minimum and they survive
by respiring materials stored in roots.
 Recommended management practices
 Adjusting planting date
 Selection of crop varieties
 Use of sprinkler irrigation --->helps for physical heat exchange
 Use of heaters --->used in small areas by switching light.
 Mulching

73
continued
 2) Light energy
 The ultimate source of energy
 A total of 6.37 x 10 the power of 21 calorie per day coming to
earth.
 Light causes photosynthesis furthermore it influences
development by causing phototropism.
 Numerous other effects of light that are quite independent of
photosynthesis also occur, most of these effects control the
appearance of the plant i.e its development and
morphogenesis(change in the origin and form)
 The control of morphogenesis by light is called photo
morphogenesis. E.g leaf expansion, chlorophyll formation,
inhibition of etiolation(stem elongation).

74
Cont.
 Light meditated changes in plant growth and development.
 It is important to realize a difference between the action of
light in causing photomorphogenesis and photosynthesis.
 In photosynthesis light provides all the energy for the process
while in photomorphogenesis light in low doses acts like a
trigger to initiate a development process that depends upon
photosynthetic products for its completion.

75
cont
 In photomorphogenesis light act as not only as a trigger but
also a modulator. i.e many genes must eventually become
activated and other deactivated.
 Relative duration of light and dark periods control flowering in
certain plants.
 There is one pigmnet that absorbs (red and far red ) effective in
causing photomorphogenesis has been identified and named as
phytochrome.

76
cont

 Pr-----Pfr
 Phytochrome exists in two interconvertible forms
 Red (660nm) absorbing form-Pr
 Far red(740nm) absorbing form-Pfr
 Pr is converted to Pfr on absorbing red light while pfr is
converted to Pr by absorbing far red light.

77
cont
 During the day when white light is available pfr accumulates in
the plant. This form of phytochrome is inhibitory to flowering
in short day plants and stimulatory to flowering in long day
plant
 In the evening Pfr undergoes thermal and spontanous decay to
change into Pr. This pigment is stimulatory to flowering in
short day plants and inhibitory to long day plants.
 Three characteristics of light which affect crop growth and
development are:
 Intensity/quantity
 Quality
 Duration or day length

78
cont

 A. light intensity
 Amount of light received per unit area
 Intensity means brightness- the brighter the light, the
more intense it is
 Changes in light intensity caused by shading and can
exert a considerable influence on crop growth.
e.g upper leaves vs middle leaves

79
cont
 B. Light quality
 Wavelength of light affects plant growth
 Light influence plant growth mainly by its effect on photosynthesis.
 It is only the visible part of the spectrum 380-760nm i.e. from violet
extending up to red which can affect plant growth and has an effect on
photosynthesis.
 Radiation up to 250nm UV is harmful to most plants and radiation >
760nm (infrared spectrum has no effect on photosynthesis.
 C. Duration of light (Day length)
 Response of plants to duration of light is known as photoperiodism.
 It is a photomorphogenic response in plants to day length
 Duration of light in many plants decide when the plant should stop
vegetative growth and start reproductive phase.

80
Cont.
 Plants have been classified into three groups with respect to
photoperiodic requirements for flowering and seed setting.
 A. Short day plants
 Requires a minimum of critical period of sunhours <10hrs to
initiate flowers and seed formation.
 If we expose these plants to higher sunlight hours above the
critical they remain vegetative without completing the
reproductive cycle.
 E.g: Most tropical crops or warm loving crops such as maize,
sorghum, millet, soybean, tobacco etc.
 B. Long day plants
 Require a maximum critical hours >14hours to initiate flowers
and seed formation. Under short day condition they remain

81
 Cont.
 Vegetative growth without giving flower and seed formation.
 Require short night for flowering
 E.g most temperate crops or cold loving crops like wheat, barley, oat,
alfalfa, sugarbeet etc
 C. Day Neutral plants
 Don’t affected by the duration of light.
 Flowering in such crop is controlled by temperature.
 E.g tomato, cotton, cucumber etc
 Summary
 Two developmental switches that affect the onset of flowering are:
 Photoperiodism
 Vernalization

82
cont
 Solar energy incident upon a surface depends on
 i. Geographical location
 ii. Time of the day or year
 iii. Atmospheric conditions
Factors determine distribution of light in crop canopy
 i. Transmissibility of leaves
 Ii. Leaf arrangements

83
 Cont.
 iii. Plant density
 Iv. Angle of sun
 3) Water
 Absolutely essential for plant life
 Importance of water for plants summarized as
follows
 i) Major constituent of living cell

84
cont

 ii) Universal solvent that allows critical chemical

reactions to occur
 iii) Carries essential nutrients
 Iv) Essential for keeping cell turgidity
 V) Water through photolysis provides electrons for
carbon dioxide fixation

85
continued
 Classification of plants based on water requirement
 Hydrophytes: require large amounts of water and may infact grow
submerged in water e.g Rice
 Mesophytes: require moderate amounts of water
 E.g Most crop plants
 Xerophytes: require little amount of water
 E.g nearly all desert plants
 Effects of moisture stress
 Moisture stress occurs when the available water in the soil is reduced to the
extent at which it can not compensate for the loss from the plant through
evapotranspiration.
 The effect of water stress on yield will depend largely on intensity of stress,
duration of exposure to stress and stages of crop growth.

86
continued
 Loss of turgor
 This affects cell expansion and cell size results in decrease in growth rate,
leaf expansion and stem elongation.
 Retard nutrient availability to plants by impairing the three major processes
involved in nutrient uptake such as : diffusion, mass flow, root
interception.
Affects all metabolic reactions:
 Under water stress there is a decrease in enzymatic efficiency
 Affects or reduces yield of crop if stress occurred at critical stage of crop
such as flowering, early stage etc.
 Drought vs aridity
 Drought
 A temporary condition that occurs for a short period due to deficient
precipitation, river flows, water supply for human consumption.

87
continued
 It may be due to abnormal atmospheric circulation
 Aridity: a permanent climatic feature and is the culmination of a number of
long term processes.
 Classification of drought
 Drought can be classified based on duration and nature of users.
 Based on duration:
 1) Permanent drought
 Characteristics of desert climate
 Agriculture is possible only by irrigation during the entire season of crop
 2) Seasonal drought
 Found in climates with well defined rainy and dry season.
 Growing of crops fall within a rainy season.
 3) Contingent drought
 Abnormal or failure of rainfall

88
continued
 4) Invisible drought
 Occurs when rainfall is inadequate to meet the evapotranspiration demand
of a crop.
 Based on relevance to water users
 1) Meteorological drought
 A situation when there is more than 25% decrease from normal
rainfall over an area.
 2) Hydrological drought
 Meteorological drought when prolonged results in hydrological drought
with a depletion of surface water and consequent drying of, tanks etc.
reserviers, tanks etc.
 3) Agricultural drought or soil drought
 It is the results of soil moisture stress due to imbalance between available
soil moisture and ET of a crop.
 Important causes

89
continued
 Inadequate precipitation, erratic distribution, long dry spell, late onset of
rainfall, early withdrawal of RF etc.
 Crop plants adaptation to moisture stress
 Definition and concept
 Adaptation: modification in structure and function that increases the
probability that a crop will survive and reproduce in a particular
environment.
 Tolerance or Resistance: the ability of a crop to grow satisfactorily in
areas subjected to water deficit.
 Crop plants adapted to water deficit or stress or dry condition in several
ways. These are:
 1) Drought escape
 E.g ephemerals
 2) Drought resistance

90
continued
 1) Drought escape
 Crops that respond in this way hasten their entire life cycle very quickly
after rains.
 Crops complete their life cycle before they run out of water or before the
supply of water in the soil is depleted.
 These kinds of crops have the following adaptation mechanisms:
 Early maturing
 Development plasticity: matches growth to water availability
 E.g early maturing during at stress conditions and delayed maurity at good
or sufficient condition.
 Seed dormancy
 Seed became dormant on the onset of dry season

91
continued
 2) Drought resistance
 Ability of a crop to grow satisfactorily in areas subjected
to water stress.
 A) Avoiding stress

Improving water
uptake
Conserving water

92
continued

 B. Tolerating stress

High metabolic strain

(decreasing metabolic
Mitigating activities)
stress

93
continued

 A) Avoiding stress
 The ability to maintain favourable internal water balance and turgidity
even when subjected to drought thereby avoiding stress. It can be
done by:
 Conserving water: early closure of stomata, decrease transpiration,
lipid deposition on leaves, increased photosynthetic efficiency and
low rate of respiration
 Improving water uptake: efficient root system, increased osmotic
potential and high root top ratio
 B. Tolerating stress

94
continued
 Crop plants show the resistance to dehydration and prevent the cell collapse
by maintaining high water potential in their cells.
 These plants maintaining high water potential in spite of drought and
maintaining cell turgor and growth.
 E. g pineapple, cactus etc
 Ii) High tolerance to metabolic strain
 Crop plants drastically reduce their metabolism below their hydration
compensation point and will have carbohydrate needs and therefore have
greater tolerance to low assimilation rates.
 Plants avoid protein loss under water stress due to decrease rate of protein
breakdown
 i.e low protease activity
 Tolerance to direct drought induced plastic strain

95
continued

 Example: many perennial undergo complete wilting or

drying of above ground parts but underground parts
remain alive and grow.
 2) Effect of excessive moisture (water logging)
  reduce crop yields
 caused due to heavy rainfall and continuous rainfall and
faulty irrigation coupled with poor drainage condition of
the soil. In general, yield reduction due to excessive
moisture is related to:
96
 continued
Poor aeration of the soil and reduced oxygen supply for the
plant’s respiratory needs.
It result in the accumulation of some toxic substances in
the soil and plants and make some nutrients unavailable to
plants

97
 To be cont

•Leaching of nitrate and denitrification occurs resulting in

nitrogen deficiency
•Decrease the permeability of roots resulting in decrease of water
and nutrient uptake
•Favor the development and spreads of fungal disease
•delay flowering and lead to poor seed set and lower quality seed
affect harvesting and trashing time.

98
 To be cont

 By planting at right time, use waterlogged tolerant

plants, controlling irrigation, proper drainage (BBM) a
crop producer can minimize losses due to flooding in
many annuals crops.
crops.

99
 To be cont
 
Classification of crop regions based on annual
rainfall/precipitation
 
a)Aridregion – receive less than 250mm of annual perception.
•crop production depends on supplemental water supplied
through irrigation.

100
 To be cont
B) Semi-arid region receives precipitation from 250-500mm.
•rainfall is very erratic and in some years it is adequate for crop
production but in other years supplemental irrigation required
or some form of water conservation should be exercised.
 

101
 To be cont
C)Subhumid/semi-humid-receives precipitation 500-1,000mm
per year. Precipitation does not limit crop production.
D) Humid region: annual precipitation greater than 1,000mm.
Precipitation does not limit crop production, but water logging
may be problem for crop production.

102
 To be cont

Agroclimatic zones in Ethiopia

Currently in Ethiopioa there are two agroecological zones
•Used by Dr Azene Bekele
•Used by MOA and EARO
•Agroclimatic zones developed by Dr Azene Bekele

103
 To be cont
The first is less detail
He simply used altitude and rainfall as a category
He divided the country into six altitudes
<500m.a.s.l
500-1500m.a.s.l
1500-2300m.a.s.l
2300-3200m.a.s.l
3200-3700m.a.s.l
>3700m.a.s.l

104
 cont
He also divided the country into three rainfall categories
<900mm
900-1400mm
>1400mm

105
 cont

>37000m.a.s.l -------- Hot wurich

3700-3200m.a.s.l ------- Moist wurich Wet wurich

3200-2300m.a.s.l ---- Moist dega Wet dega

1500-2300m.a.s.l Dry weina dega Moist weiya dega Wet weina dega

500-1500m.a.s.l Dry kolla Moist kolla Wet kolla

<500m.a.s.l berha
106
 cont
Based on the above he developed five agroecological
classification
•Wurich
•Dega
•Weina dega
•Kola
•Berha

107
 cont
MOA and EARO classification
Based on thermal zones and length of growing period
Based on thermal zones the country can be classified into
•Hot (>27.5oc)
•Warm (21-27.5oc)
•Tepid (16-21oc)
•Cool (11-16oc)
•Cold (7.5-11oc)
•Very cold (<7.5oc)

108
 cont

Based on length of growing period

Length of growing period is a time in which the environment is
conducive for crop production
The length of growing period is divided into seven:
<45 days dry areas(arid)
46-60 semi arid area
61-120 submoist
121-180 moist
181-240 subhumid
241-300humid
>300 very humid

109
 cont

No Region Hot to Tepid to Cold to

warm cool very cold
>21oc 21-11oc <11oc
1 Arid <45 ∕ ∕ x

2 Semi arid ∕ ∕ x
46-60
3 Sub moist ∕ ∕ ∕
61-120
4 Moist 121- ∕ ∕ ∕
180
5 Sub humid, ∕ ∕ ∕
181-240

6 Humid ∕ ∕ ∕

7 Very humid ∕ ∕ x
110
 cont
5.4. Humidity
The humidity of the air or precisely the water vapor contained in
the air is very important for plants. The most common expression
of atmospheric water content is relative humidity (RH) has a
considerable effect on evapotranspiration and hence on water
requirements of crops.

111
 cont
RH= amount of water vapor in gm/kg of dry air
When radiation is strong and temperature is high, low
RH can restricts plant growth significantly
excessive RH retards the flow of water through the
plant, there by reducing the supply of minerals and the
transfer of hormones synthesized in the roots to its
various organs
high relative humidity encourage the development of
many plant disease
High relative humidity also affects the storage products
in the storage structures.
Low relative humidity restrict plant growth by
increasing evapotranspiration
112
 cont
5.5. Wind
Wind influences agriculture and agricultural practices in
various ways.
The combination of low RH and strong wind can lead to
damage desiccation and wilting.
Wind speeds in excess of 20km/hr cause sever lodging of
cereals, particularly of millet and maize.

113
 cont
 
5.6. Composition of the atmosphere
Global warming owing to the emission of greenhouse gases
has merged as important issue in the last two decades. The
six major gases responsible for global warming are:
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Hydro-fluro-carbons (HFCs)
Per fluro carbons (PFCs)
Sulfur hexa fluorides (SHFs)

114
 cont
These long-lived trace gases altered the
atmospheric composition. Due to increase
emission of these traces gases to the atmosphere:
The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has
risen by 30% (280-365 ppm) since 1960s.
An average rate of increase of global temperature
during the 21st century is projected at 0.4oC per
decade. Potential evapo-transpiration will increase.
Decrease in stratospheric ozone has been observed
in the range of 3.4 to 5.1 % between 30 and 64oN.
Ozone depletion may lead to an increase UV
radiation reached to the surface of the earth
adversely affect life forms.

115
 cont

5.7. Soil Environment and Crop production

Soil supports plant life in two ways.
It supplies moisture and essential nutrient – storehouse of moisture
and nutrients needed for plant growth.
It provides anchorage for the root of the plant- it is a medium
flourishing plant growth

116
 cont
It is possible to grow crops in mineral solution
(hydroponics) or artificial media, but the high cost and
low yields limit such alternatives to very few, highly
valued crops. For world crop production, soil is essential.

117
 cont

5.7.1. Physical Properties of Soil

Texture - the mineral part of a soil is composed of different
proportions of three types of particles: Sand, silt, and clay.
a. Ease of cultivation: light sandy soils verses heavy clay
 
b. Water holding capacity and irrigation requirement is
affected by soil texture

118
 cont
c. The adsorption of nutrients
Clay soil holds more nutrients but in sandy soil nutrient is
easily leached with drained water.
2. Porosity: the volume of soil occupied by air and water.
Affects storage and transport of water and air

119
 cont

3. Bulk density - mass/volume - it is the measure of pore

space in the soil. The higher the bulk density the lower the
porosity.
 
4. Depth - Insufficient soil depth for adequate root
development is the most obvious physical property that can
affect crop yields.

120
 cont

5.7.2 Chemical Properties of Soil

1. Cation Exchange capacity (CEC) / total exchange
capacity / Base Exchange capacity - it is both a physical
and chemical property of soil. It is defined as the capacity of
the soil to exchange cations (positively charged atoms or
molecules) such as H+, Ca 2+, or NH4+, for an equivalent
amount of other cations without undergoing any change in
structure. It takes.

121
 cont
place in the organic and clay component of soil particles.
2. Soil PH - the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen
ion concentration also affects plant growth and
development.
5.7.3. Soil Organic Matter

122
 cont
Organic matter includes all materials organic origin present in the
soil, regardless of their origin and state of decomposition.
Role of organic matter
Improves soil physical, chemical and biological
properties.
Improves water holding capacity of light
textured soils
Enhance the supply of nutrients particularly N,
P and S

123
 cont
Increases soil porosity
Improves the water infiltration rate and aeration
Reduces the nutrient loses by leaching
Increase CEC of soil – adsorbed Ca, Mg and K released to plants
Decrease soil erosion by wind and water
Food source for soil micro-organisms

124
5.7. 4. Soil organisms
cont
Soil consists of the following various types and forms of plant and animal life
1)Animal life (fauna)
Macro fauna- earth worm, termites, ants, snails, centipedes, millipedes, etc
Micro-fauna- protozoa, nematodes etc,
2)life (flora)
Macro-flora- plant roots, macro algae
Micro-flora-bacteria, fungi, algae

125
cont

 3) Socioeconomic factor
 The value given for a specific kind of crop will affects its
productivity.
 4) Biological factors
 Plant factors: Competition due to over sowing
 Weed-45%
 Disease -30%
 Insect-25%
 Others rodents-5%

126
 cont
Chapter 6. Cropping System and Crop Husbandry Practices
6.1. Cropping Systems
Difference between farming and cropping system?
Farming system is a unique and reasonably stable arrangement
of farming enterprises that a household manages according to a
well defined practices in response to the physical, biological
and socioeconomic environments in accordance with
household’s goal, preferences and resources while Cropping
system is used to describe the pattern of growing crops in a
given area over a period and includes the technical and
managerial resources that are utilized.

127
cont
 Cropping systems can be classified on the basis of:
  The distribution of crops in time: that is whether shifting
cultivation, continuous cultivation.
  The distribution of the crops in space e.g. monocropping vs
multiple cropping
  The level of management and resources utilized to produce
the crops: whether the production is intensive or extensive.
  The type of crops grown: whether Orchard, Cereals,
Vegetables, Forestry etc

128
cont On the basis of distribution of crops in time, cropping system can be
classified into the followings:
A)Shifting cultivation
B)Continuous cultivation
A) Shifting cultivation
 A cropping system in which farm is not at a permanent location. Instead,
a piece of land is cleared, farmed for a few years and then abandoned in
preference for a new site. While the new site is being farmed, natural
vegetation (bush fallow) is allowed to grow on the old land. After several
years of bush fallow, the farmer returns to the original location. In its
original and more primitive form, shifting cultivation involved moving the
home along with the farm, but this form of shifting cultivation exists in
only a few places in the world today. Instead, shifting cultivation in which
the farm is moved while home is stationery is a common practice today in
most parts of the tropics.

129
cont
 Shifting cultivation has evolved in traditional agriculture to cope up with
the problem of decreasing soil fertility during cropping.
 Shifting cultivation has evolved in traditional agriculture to cope up with
the problem of decreasing soil fertility during cropping.
 Disadvantages of shifting cultivation
  It is linked with low-level input technology and managements as the farms
stays in one location only a short time.
 No incentive to invest in permanent structures such as storage, shades and
irrigation facilities.
 High labor requirements as most of the operations are carried out with
simple hand tools.
 It requires a great deal of land to maintain the system because the farmers
must keep several fields under various stages of bush fallow.

130
 cont
 6.1. 2. Continuous Cultivation
 The cultivation of the same piece of land year after year.
Fallowing may occur, but it never occurs for more than a
season or two.
 Land will be used for cropping on long-term basis, it is
often economical to carry out various operations of long-
term value on the land, and it is usually associated with a
high level of technology and management.

131
 cont

 Such long-term operations may include permanent

removal of tree stumps and woody roots from the field.
 Advantage of continuous cropping
 Efficient land utilization i.e A very high percentage of the
land is under crops at any given time. Even land under
fallow can be made to give economic returns, as forage
crops can be grown on the land during fallow.
  It is possible and economically feasible to establish
permanent structure
 Mechanization is possible

132
 cont
 Classification of cropping system based on space
 i)Mono cropping
 ii) Multiple cropping
 Mono-cropping
 The practice of growing one crop variety alone in the field in
normal density is known as mono-cropping. It involves
intensification and specialization and recommended for
intensive production system. When a farmer plants a single
crop on a piece of land at one time, then harvests it before
planting another crop, is said to mono-cropping (sole
cropping). In this practice, only one crop variety occupies the
land at any time.
 
 There are two forms of mono cropping, these are i)
monoculture ii) crop rotation
133
 cont
 Monoculture
 A repetitive or continuous growing of one crop on the land.
 It is less common than crop rotation as it carries the risks that
the farmer could loss the entire crop in the event of such
natural hazards as drought and pest attack.
 Creates an imbalance in nutrients removal from the soils and
encourage pests and diseases buildup.
Advantage
 high level of technology is employed in the crop production.
 permits the maximum concentration of production efforts on a
single target crop.
Crop rotation
 practice of growing different crops one at time, in a definite
sequence on the same piece of land is referred to as crop
rotation.

134
 cont
 Advantage
 Effectivemeans of controlling disease, pests
 A device of maintaining soil fertility

 The type of crop rotation where the field is divided into several plots
offer farmers some insurance against crop failure.

 Disadvantage


  The design of a good crop rotation is not an easy task and it requires
the decision what crop to have in the rotation, in what sequence the
crops should occur and for how many years of seasons in each cycle
the rotation must run.

135
con
 ii) Multiple cropping
 The intensification of cropping in time and space dimension. It
is the growing two or more crops in the same field in a year.
  Types of multiple cropping
 (A)Sequential cropping (non overlapping cropping system)
 (B)Intercropping

136
 cont

 (A)Sequential cropping: growing two or more crops in

sequence on the same field per year. The succeeded crop
is planted after the preceding has been harvested. Crop
intensification is only in the time dimension. There is no
intercrop competition. Farmers managed only one crop
at a time in the same field.
   Double cropping: growing two crops a year in sequence.
 Triple cropping: growing three crops a year in sequence.
 Quadruple cropping: growing four crops in sequence.
 Ratoon cropping: cultivation of crop regrowth after harvest,
although not necessarily for grain.
 

137
 cont
 (B)Intercropping: is the practice of growing two or more
crops simultaneously on the same field. Crop intensification is
both in time and space dimensions. There is intercrop
competition during all or part of crop growth. Farmers manage
more than one crop at a time in the same field.
  There are various kinds of intercropping systems based on the
exact spatial arrangements of crops on the field.
 Row intercropping: is the growing of two or more crops
simultaneously where one or more crops planted in separate
rows. Example: Maize with Haricot bean.
 Mixed intercropping: is the growing of two or more crops
simultaneously without distinct row arrangement. Example:
Wheat vs Barley, Field pea vs Broad bean.

138
 cont

 Strip intercropping: growing two or more crops

simultaneously in different strips wide enough to permit
independent cultivation.
 Relay intercropping:- growing two or more crops
simultaneously during part of the life cycle of each. A second
crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive
stage but before reached its reproductive stage but before it is
ready for harvest.

139
 cont
 Advantages of intercropping.
 Better use of land, labor and growth resources including
light, nutrients and water
 Suppression of weeds
 Reduced plant and disease incidence.
 Yield stability and compensate for failed
 It provides a means for soil conservation and maintains
soil fertility.
 Others, e.g. physical support of one crop to another (maize
+ climbing beans)

140
 cont
 Disadvantage.
 Labor intensive
 Control of pests, and diseases or chemical weed control
may be difficult (cereal +legume)
 Difficult for mechanization
 Rational (balanced) fertilizer applications to a mixture of
different crops are difficult to plan.

141
 cont
 6.3. Crop husbandry and production practices
  6.3.1 Tillage and Crop Production
 Tillage is as old as agriculture or when crop production is started. The
primitive man used to stir the soil to place the seeds of crops in soil.
 Definitions and Objectives of Tillage
 Tillage is the physical manipulation of soil with tools and implements for
loosening the surface crust and bringing about conditions favorable for the
germination of seeds and growth and development of crop plants. It
involves changing a soil condition or position with a tool for man’s benefit.
  
 The fundamental purposes of tillages are:
 to prepare a suitable seedbed for sowing and planting,
 to eliminate competition from weed growth, break disease and insect cycle
 to bury plant residue
 to mix manures and fertilizer in the soil
 to improve the soil physical condition
  

142
 cont
 Advantages of tillage are the following
  1)Improving moisture regime
 Water is lost by surface run-off, by infiltration beyond the
root zone, through evaporation from the soil surface, and
through transpiration by plants. Tillage can be effective in
appropriate soil conservation practices.
  

143
 cont

 2. Improving infiltration
 Tillage may either increase or decrease infiltration.
 Tillage practices such as loosening the surface crusts increase
infiltration while it decreases infiltration when it smoothes the
soil surface or reduces soil aggregates.
  3. Breaking crusts
 Many soils in dry regions such as vertisols, if unprotected by a
plant canopy or mulch, form a crust under the beating action of
raindrops.

144
 cont

 4. Improved nutritional status

 A direct relationship exists between the intensity of tillage
and the nutrient status of the soil. The rate at which N-is
released from the soil organic matter tends to be
proportional to the intensity and frequency of tillage
operation. Tillage promotes aeration and hence the
decomposition of organic matter (Provided moisture
conditions are favorable).

145
 cont
 5. Soil sanitation
 Tillage aims at improving sanitation by incorporating in to
the soil crop residues, weeds and volunteer plants and
there by redistributing pathogenic organisms, weed seeds,
insect larva and nematodes from the top soil-in which they
are concentrated to deeper layers of soil, and bury them at
depth that prevent their attach on crops
  
 6. Weed control
  Weed control is probably the most beneficial and
universal role of tillage.

146
 cont
 Disadvantages of tillage
 Destruction of soil structure through soil compaction and
crusting
 Can bring buried weed seed into the surface
 It increases evaporation of soil-water
 6.3.2. Types of Tillage
  i)Conventional Tillage ii) conservational tillage
 Conventional Tillage
 Disruption, inversion, pulverization and mixing of soil
with the tilled zone.
 Tillage operation done for seedbed preparation are
generally known as preparatory tillage which are two
types i)primary ii) secondary tillage
 
147
 cont
 a) Primary Tillage or Ploughing
 It is the first step in the preparation of seedbed, in these operations
the soil is loosened, the plant residue on the surface is turned under.
There is a more or less complete inversion of the soil which brings
about pulverization. Implements used are mouldboard plough,chisel
plough with rotary and disc plough.
   b) Secondary Tillage
 Generally follows primary tillage to produce a finer tilth for seeding.
 It is done to a shallower depth(5-15cm)
 The implements pulverize the clods left by primary tillage
 It is important for leveling ,harrowing and firming the soil
 Implements used are disk harrow, powered rotary tiller etc.
 Advantage of secondary tillage
 To break the big clods left in the field due to ploughing
 To shred the uprooted weeds and stubbles before mixing them in the
soil.
 Implements used are disk harrow, powered rotary tiller etc

148
 cont
 The soil should not be too dry or too wet when the ploughing is
done. If the soil is too dry when ploughed, it is likely to
become cloddy, and if it is wet, the amount of pulverization
will be greatly damaged by puddling or breaking down of the
soil granules and cause compaction.

149
 cont
 Conservational Tillage
 A form of non inversion tillage that retains the protective amount of
residue or mulch surface throughout the year.
 Purpose
 Minimize disturbance of soil
 Keep residue in the soil
 Systems of agricultural development that leads to
conservational tillage are:-
 Herbicide development, increament in cost of fuel,
development of multifunctional machineries
 Common types of conservational tillage include
 No tillage/zero tillage
 Minimum tillage
 Mulch tillage

150
 cont
 No tillage/zero tillage
 No tilth, direct drilling, direct seeding.
 A practice in which soil disturbance is limited only to the spot where
the seed would be placed.
 Weeds are controlled by herbicides prior to seeding.
 It requires no seed bed preparation other than opening a soil for seed
placement.
 Advantage
 All crop residues remain on the surface there by reducing water loss
by evaporation and reducing erosion.
 Minimum tillage/reduced tillage
 A method of reducing tillage to the minimum, necessary for ensuring
a good seedbed, rapid germination and favorable growing conditions.
 It involves a considerable soil disturbance to a much lesser extent
than that associated with conventional tillage.
 Some crop residue is left on the soil surface
 It substitutes use of herbicides for mechanical weed control during
part of the fallow season.
151
 cont
 Mulch tillage
 Mulch tillage systems vary but the common objective is to
leave crop residues to serve as mulch.
 Goals
 To conserve moisture and to protect the soil from wind and
water erosion by leaving crop residue on the soil surface
 It is practiced in areas where soils exposed to wind erosion
 Advantage of conservational tillage
 Reduce soil erosion
 Reduce soil compaction
 Reduces cost of tillage
 Soil temperature moderation
 Increase soil organic matter
152
 cont
 Disadvantage
 Depends on chemicals
 Costy
 Higher risk of insect pests and pathogen
 High amount of N fertilizer requirements
  Problems associated with residue mulches
  1. Reduce soil temperature:
 2. Sanitary problems:

153
 cont
  6.5. SEED AND SEED PRODUCTION
 Seed is a means of dispersal for plant populations in space
(spatial) and time (temporal), representing continuity and
change, and thus adaptation to the local environment.
Seed has played a critical role in agricultural
development since prehistoric humans domesticated the
first crops. In modern agriculture, seed is a vehicle to
deliver almost all agriculture-based technological
innovations to farmers so that they can exploit the
genetic potential of new varieties.

154
 cont
 For seed to play a catalytic role, it should reach farmers in a
good quality state, i.e. high genetic purity and identity, as well
as high physical, physiological and health quality.
 Desirable characteristics of good seed
 Maturity:
 Whole sameness:
 Free from Disease and pests Attack
 Free from Foreign matter
 SEED TESTING
 Very often, poor crops are the result of sowing seeds of poor
quality; therefore, it is much cheaper, simpler and safer to
have the germination capacity of seed tested in the laboratory
before sowing than to risk total or partial failure of the crop by
sowing seed of unknown viability.

155
 cont
 Hence, the ultimate objective of seed testing is to gain information with
respect to the field planting value of the seed and to provide results which
can be used to compare the seeds of different seed lots.
 1)Purity Test
 This method of testing seeds identifies the various kinds of seeds and inert
particles constituting the sample. In accomplishing this objective, the
sample is separated in to the following components:-
 1)A variety to be considered as pure seeds.
 2)Other seeds.
 3)Inert matters (stone, chaff, straws e.t.c.)

156
 cont
 Results are calculated as follows:-
 Weight of pure seeds - -X, Weight of inert matter - -Y, Weight of other
seeds - - - Z
 Total weight of the sample- - - X+Y+Z
  % of pure seeds = X /(X+Y+Z) x 100
 % of Inert matter = Y /(X+Y+Z) x 100
 % of other seeds = Z /(X+Y+Z) x 100
  VIABILITY TEST
 This test distinguishes living seeds from dead seeds. In their
more refined forms, they can also distinguish between living
and dead portions of the same seed and serve as a basis for
prediction of germination.
 The most common viability test is that which utilizes 2, 3, 5-
triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC).
 

157
 cont
 GERMINATION TEST
 Germination in a laboratory test is the emergence and
development from the seed embryo. Those essential structures
which fit the kind of seed in question are indicative of their
ability to produce normal plants under favorable conditions.
  At the end of germination test, most of the seedling will have
germinated but some of them may not be germinated. The
germinated seedlings are classed as normal or abnormal
seedlings, seedlings, depending on how well they have grown.
The ungerminated seeds are not necessarily dead, they may be
dormant, so they are also divided in to two group: fresh
(dormant) and dead seeds.

158
 cont

 Therefore, the general formula for germination test is:

  
 Germination % = Number of seeds germinated x
100
 Total number of seeds sown
  

159
 cont
 6.7. FERTILIZER USES AND MANAGEMENT
  6.7.1. Soil fertility and soil productivity
 Soil fertility is the inherent capacity of the soil that enables it
to provide essential plant elements in quantities and
proportions for the growth of specified plant when other
growth factors are favorable. It indicates the nutrient
supplying capacity of a soil for crop growth. It is usually
expressed in quantity of nutrients per unit land area (kg ha-
1
). Though, a fertile soil is not necessarily a productive due to
adverse climate, water logging, soil reaction, etc soil fertility is
vital to crop productivity.
 Soil productivity is defined as the capability of the soil for
producing a specified plant or sequence of plant under a
defined set of management practices. It is measured in terms of
output or harvest in relation to the inputs.
 

160
 cont
 6.7.2. Essential plant nutrients
  Criteria for essentiality
 (1)Obligatory/crucial/indispensable:-A deficiency of the
element make it impossible for a plant to complete its life cycle
 (2)Specificity:-The deficiency is specific for the element in
question
 (3)The element is directly involved in the metabolism or
nutrition of the plant, for example, as constitute of an essential
metabolite or required for the action of an enzyme system.

161
 cont

 Based on the above criteria 16 elements are considered as essential

for the growth of higher plants. These are carbon(C), hydrogen (H),
and oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K),
Calcium (Ca), and Magnesium (Mg), sulfur(S), iron (Fe),
Manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Molybdenum (Mo),
boron (B) and chlorine (Cl). Of the 16 essential elements, C, H and
O are taken from the air and soil water due to that they are not
considered as mineral nutrients b/c they are not taken from soil while
the other 13 are supplied by the soil and they are considered as
mineral nutrients.

162
 cont
 Classification of essential nutrients
 Essential nutrients are divided into two groups based on their
quantity required by plants.
 Macro elements:
 Required in large quantities by higher plants
 Includes- Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K),
Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg) and Sulfur(S). N, P and K are
considered as primary nutrients most commonly applied almost
each crop season unless organic farming is practiced.
 Microelements (Trace Elements):-
 -Required in small quantities by higher plants
 Iron (Fe), Copper(Cu), Manganese (Mn), Zinc(Zn),
Molybdenum(Mo), Boron(B), and Chlorine(Cl) are needed
only in small amounts. Some plants also require sodium (Na)
as microelements.

163
 cont
 If symptoms appear on the lower leaves, they may be due to
deficiency of mobile nutrients (translocated) such as N, P, K
and Mg. Mobile nutrients are those which can be translocated
within plants. Hence, deficiency symptoms occur first on the
lower part of the plant.
 If deficiency symptoms first appear on the upper young leaves,
they may be due to deficiency of immobile nutrients such as
Ca, Fe, Cu, S, B, Mn and Mo.

164
 cont

165
 cont
 6.7.4. Purpose of Fertilization
 Fertilizers are any substances that are added to soil to supply
those elements required in the nutrition of plants.
 Fertilizers are a vital for enhancing the productivity of crops to
the desired level. Due to continuous cropping, there has been
progressive and substantial depletion of nutrient reserves in the
soil to the level of suboptimal uneconomical yields.

166
 cont
 6.7.3. Soil fertility evaluation
 Diagnostic techniques for nutritional disorders or methods for
identifying nutrient deficiencies, toxicities or imbalance in the
plant-soil system. Nutrient deficiency can occur when
nutrient is inadequate in the growth medium and/or cannot be
absorbed and assimilated by plants due to unfavorable
environment. Several techniques are used to assess soil fertility
status. These include:
 Visual nutrient deficiency symptoms
 Biological test
 Plant analysis
 Soil testing

167
 cont
 ….
 Soil testing: It has the advantages over deficiency
symptoms and plant analysis in that, one can determine
the deficiencies in the soil before the crop is sown.
 6.7.4. Purpose of Fertilization
 Fertilizers are any substances that are added to soil to
supply those elements required in the nutrition of plants.
 Fertilizers are a vital for enhancing the productivity of
crops to the desired level. Due to continuous cropping,
there has been progressive and substantial depletion of
nutrient reserves in the soil to the level of suboptimal
uneconomical yields.

168
 cont
 Fertilizer consumption in Ethiopia has been very low. The
present level in Ethiopia is less than 36 kg ha-1 as against
560 kg ha-1 in Netherlands, 407 kg ha-1 in Japan, 110 kg
ha-1 in Sir Lanka.

169
 cont
 6.7. 5. Sources of fertilizers
 1)Organic sources
 2) Inorganic sources
 Filler: materials added used as a carrier for the active ingredient of
fertilizer.
 Fertilizers are classified as
 Straight
 Contain only one major nutrient namely N or P or K
 e.g Urea(N), Single super phosphate(P O 7-9% P) and potassium
2 5,
chlorideK2O, 50% K), triple super phosphate(19-22 % P)
 ii) Complex
 Contain two or more primary nutrients
 e.g DAP(N & P)-18-21%N,20-23 %P
 iii) Complete
 Contain all the three major nutrients (NPK)
 

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 Fertilizers are also classified on the basis of nutrient present as
 Nitrogenous
 Phosphate
 Potassium
 Nitrogenous fertilizers
 Anhydrous ammonia (NH ) = 82%N
3
 Urea (CO (NH2)2= 45%N
 Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) =33%N
 Ammonium sulphate= (NH ) SO =21%N and 24%S
4 2 4
 Potassium nitrate (KNO3) =30-40%N
 Phosphorus fertilizers
 Triple super phosphate= 19-22% P
 Single super phosphate= 7-9%P
 Diammonium phosphate=18-21%N, 20-23%P
 Monoammonium phosphate=11%N, 21-23%P

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 6.8. CROP PROTECTION ASPECT OF CROP PRODUCTION
 Plant Diseases:-
 What is normal (healthy) plant?
 Plant that showed any deviation from normal functioning of physiological
processes is said to be a diseased plant.
 These functions include the following
 - Cell division and enlargement
 - Absorption of water and minerals
 - Photosynthesis
 - Respiration
 - Translocation of photosynthetic products
 Classification of plant disease
 1. Infectious disease or biotic disease: Theses are diseases which are
caused by:
 - Fungi
 bacteria
 Nematodes
 Viruses
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 2. Non-infectious or abiotic disease: These are diseases
caused by:
 - Too low or too high a temp.
 - Lack or excess moisture
 - Nutrient deficiencies
 - Lack of O2
  
 What effect does disease have on the crop? Reduce
yield, quality of produce and increased cost of production,
which associated to their control
 Disease damage or Symptom
  

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 Symptom is the internal or external expression of the host to the
pathogen.
 a) Discoloration:
 E.g. Chlorosis: is yellowing of plant tissue as a result of break-
down of chlorophyll
 b) Abnormal growth:
 E.g. stunting
 - Cell enlargement (gall formation)
 c) Rots: is disintegration of tissue.
 d) Wilts: occurred on vascular tissue of plants as result of blocking of
xylem and phloem vessels.
  INSECT PESTS:-
 There are several kinds of insects pests, which damage crop plants.
Much effort is spent in trying to control such insect pests. Insect pests
exhibit two basic feeding patterns, namely chewing and sucking.
There are, in addition, the boring insects, which also do considerable
damage to crops.
 

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 6.9. Harvesting, Storage and Marketing
 
 Harvesting
 Grains cease growing and gaining dry weight when they
reach about the hard dough stage or when the moisture
content of the grain drops below 40 percent. Usually
crops are harvested either manually or by combine
harvester when they reach to their physiological
maturity. However, in some crops ripening is not
uniform among different heads or different grains with in
a head. Small grains are generally harvested with a binder
when the grain is in the hard dough stage, which
corresponds roughly to a moisture content of 25 to 35%.

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