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Design and management of irrigation systems

Article in Chilean journal of agricultural research · December 2009

DOI: 10.4067/S0718-58392009000500003

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REVIEW 17

DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Eduardo A. Holzapfel1, Alejandro Pannunzio2, Ignacio Lorite3, Aureo S. Silva de

Oliveira4, and István Farkas5

ABSTRACT

Irrigation systems should be a relevant agent to give solutions to the increasing demand of food, and to the
development, sustainability and productivity of the agricultural sector. The design, managing, and operation of
irrigation systems are crucial factors to achieve an efficient use of the water resources and the success in the
production of crops and orchards. The aim of this paper is to analyze knowledge and investigations that
enable to identify the principal criteria and processes that allow improving the design and managing of the
irrigation systems, based on the basic concept that they facilitate to develop agriculture more efficient and
sustainable. The design and managing of irrigation systems must have its base in criteria that are relevant,
which implies to take into account agronomic, soil, hydraulic, economic, energetic, and environmental factors.
The optimal design and managing of irrigation systems at farm level is a factor of the first importance for a
rational use of water, economic development of the agriculture and its environmental sustainability.

Key words: irrigation, design, water management, operation systems.

INTRODUCTION accelerated competition for water and increased

awareness of unintended negative consequences
Water required by crops is supplied by nature in the form of poor design and management (Cai et al., 2003).
of precipitation, but when it becomes scarce or its distribution Optimum management of available water resources at
does not coincide with demand peaks, it is then necessary to farm level is needed because of increasing demands, limited
supply it artificially, by irrigation. Several irrigation methods resources, water table variation in space and time, and soil
are available, and the selection of one depends on factors contamination (Kumar and Singh, 2003). Efficient water
such as water availability, crop, soil characteristics, land management is one of the key elements in successful
topography, and associated cost. operation and management of irrigation schemes.
In the near future, irrigated agriculture will need to Irrigation water management involves determining
produce two-thirds of the increase in food products required when to irrigate, the amount of water to apply at each
by a larger population (English et al., 2002). The growing
irrigation event and during each stage of plant, and
operating and maintaining the irrigation system. The main
dependence on irrigated agriculture coincides with an
management objective is to manage the production
1Universidad de Concepción, Facultad de Ingeniería Agrícola, system for profit without compromising environment and
Departamento de Recursos Hídricos, Av. Vicente Méndez in agreement with water availability. A major management
595, Chillán, Chile ([email protected]). activity involves irrigation scheduling or determining when
2Universidad de Buenos Aires, Departamento de Agronomía,

Av. Chorroarin 280, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, and how much water to apply, considering the irrigation
Buenos Aires, Argentina ([email protected]). method and other field characteristics.
3Consejería de Agricultura y Pesca IFAPA, Centro Alameda Under limitations in water availability, it is required to
del Obispo, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, España
develop new irrigation scheduling approaches focused on to
([email protected]).
4Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia (UFRB), ensure optimal use of available water, and not based on full
Núcleo de Engenharia de Água e Solo (NEAS), 44380-000 crop water requirements. The determination of these efficient
Cruz das Almas, Bahia, Brasil ([email protected]).
Gödöllő University, Department of Physics and Process Control,
5
and effective irrigation schedules (including deficit irrigation
2103 Pater Karoly utca 1 Gödöllő, strategies) requires the accurate determination of water
Hungary ([email protected]). requirements for the main crops, in order to assist the

CHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 69 (Suppl. 1):17-25 (DECEMBER 2009)

18 CHILEAN J. AGRIC. RES. - VOL. 69 (Suppl. 1) - 2009

farmers in deciding when and how much to irrigate 2000; 2004). For an adequate management and operation
their crops. of the surface irrigation systems, a series of support
New technologies such as remote sensing, modeling, elements have been developed, including simulation
and lysimiter are contributing to obtain a better knowledge models and control and derivation structures, such as
of the crop agronomy and irrigation, detecting water adduction systems. In the case of pressurized irrigation
stress, determining crop water requirements and systems, enormous advances have resulted in greater
obtaining accurate irrigation schedules. automation in its operation, greater precision in its
Irrigation technology has made significant advances application, and the incorporation of chemical elements
in recent years. Criteria and procedures have been for nutrition and disease control into the irrigation process
developed to improve and rationalize practices to apply (Holzapfel and Arumí, 2006; Ravindra et al., 2008).
water, through soil leveling, irrigation system design, In order to increase agriculture sustainability, an
discharge regulations, adduction structures, and control important aspect that has been considered by several
equipment. However, in many regions these advances researchers and studies is to design efficient irrigation
are not yet available at the farm stage. systems at farm level (Hillel and Vlek, 2005; Khan et
Irrigation systems are selected, designed and al., 2006; Hsiao et al., 2007; Pannunzio et al., 2008;
operated to supply the irrigation requirements of each Pannunzio, 2008). These appear to be a very crucial
crop on the farm while controlling deep percolation, aspect for the irrigated agriculture and a key factor due
runoff, evaporation, and operational losses, to to the competition for water resources. In recent years,
establish a sustainable production process. Playán several irrigation systems have improved significantly
and Mateos (2006) mentioned that modernized the application efficiency at farm level, improving the
irrigation systems at farm level implies selecting the irrigation water management. For instance, in the main
appropriate irrigation system and strategy according to irrigation districts of Mexico, introducing new
technologies and more efficient associated with real-
the water availability, the characteristics of climate, soil
time irrigation scheduling, demonstrated water savings
and crop, the economic and social circumstances, and
in the order of at least 20%, without any appreciable
the constraints of the distribution system.
decrease in crop yields (Quiñones et al., 1999).
IRRIGATION SYSTEMS Some studies have analyzed the differences in
irrigation efficiency for several irrigation systems, as Al-
Design and management
Jamal et al. (2001), where sprinkler, trickle and furrow
Design of irrigation systems is a very important irrigation systems were analyzed in Southern New
topic in the process to improve irrigation Mexico, USA, with onion production. Thus, the maximum
application, efficiency and economical return in the irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) was obtained using
production process (Pannunzio et al., 2004b). the sprinkler system. The lower IWUE values were
Irrigation system design substantially affects
obtained under subsurface drip and furrow irrigation
application efficiency and involves numerous variables
systems compared with sprinkler irrigation was due to
and restrictions, whose principal objective is to maximize
excessive irrigation under subsurface drip and higher
benefits and minimize costs. In a successful irrigation
evaporation rates from fields using furrow irrigation.
system, a set of resources produces maximum returns.
To achieve this, an optimization process supporting the Comparison of irrigation systems
design and operation of water application systems in Ibragimov et al. (2007) compared drip and furrow
agriculture is required due to many possible combinations irrigation, obtaining that 18-42% of the irrigation water
of design variables that satisfy irrigation conditions. was saved with drip systems in comparison with furrow,
Irrigation systems have specific applications that and the IWUE increased by 35-103% compared with
are based in several factors, among which the most furrow irrigation. Same comparisons were made by Maisiri
relevant are the crop, soil type, topography, and water et al. (2005) in a semi-arid agro tropical climate of
availability and quality. The application efficiency of Zimbabwe; in this study, drip irrigation used about 35% of
the different surface and pressurized irrigation the water used by the surface irrigation systems,
methods varies and depends on design, management, providing higher IWUE. The gross margin level for surface
and operation (Holzapfel and Arumí, 2006). irrigation was lower than for drip irrigation.
Undoubtedly, well-designed and correctly used Other studies analyzed surface and subsurface drip
irrigation systems will have the highest efficiency and irrigation systems in Turkey (Yazar et al., 2002). Both
water distribution levels, which can result in a good methods had similar yield results but surface drip had
production and high product quality (Holzapfel et al., more advantages due to difficulty in replacement and
E. A. HOLZAPFEL et al. - DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATION… 19

higher cost for subsurface systems. Additionally done properly, frequent irrigations are beneficial and often
they recommended the surface drip in early potato increase growth and yield in many orchards and crops.
under Mediterranean conditions. For example, frequent irrigation by drip in peach (Prunus
Tognetti et al. (2003) determined that drip irrigation persica) increased fruit size and yield compared to other
influenced positively many of the physiological process irrigation methods by maintaining higher tree water status
and technological parameters in semi-arid conditions, between irrigations (Bryla et al., 2005). It is also important
as compared to low-pressure sprinkler irrigation. to apply water to both sides of the plant and to maintain
Hanson and May (2004) obtained yield increases an adequate volume of soil wetted, as was observed in
when drip system were used compared to the sprinkler citrus (Citrus sp.) and avocados (Persea americana)
systems with similar amounts of applied water; (Henríquez, 2005; Holzapfel and Arumí, 2006). Abbott
additionally, drips systems reduced percolation below and Gough (1986) found that when water was applied to
only one side, growth and production were severely
the root zone. Another study analyzed low-energy
restricted on the other. However, irrigators, particularly
precision application (LEPA) and trickle irrigation for
those using drip, should be careful to avoid the temptation
cotton in Turkey, concluding that both irrigation
to over-irrigate. Over-irrigation depletes the root zone of
systems could be used successfully under the arid
much-needed oxygen, thus reducing both root growth and
climatic conditions of this country (Yazar et al., 2002).
nutrient uptake, leading to a host of potential root disease
Pressurized irrigation systems problems as well as aquifer contamination. Yadav and
According to many papers, drip irrigation is widely Mathur (2008) found with tested model that the water
regarded as the most promising irrigation system, and extraction is closely related with soil moisture availability
is specially recommended in combination with saline in addition to the root density, which occurs normally from
water. In Karlberg et al. (2007) report, two low-cost the upper root dense soil profile.
drip irrigation systems with different emitter discharge Considering the relevant support that means a good
rates were used to irrigate tomatoes (Lycopersicon automation of the irrigation systems to reduce management
esculentum), concluding that the combination of drip time and simplify design, it is necessary to use the modern
systems with plastic mulch increased the yield. methods of surveying and analysis tools (Troy Peters and
In relation with drip systems, some analyses have Evett, 2008). Remote sensing and Geographic Information
been made to determine the optimum lateral spacing for Systems (GIS) with their capability of data collection and
drip-irrigated corn (Zea mays) in Turkey (Bozkurt et al., analysis are viewed as efficient and effective tools for
2006). Lateral spacing of 0.7, 1.40 and 2.10 m were pressurized irrigation system design and management
compared, concluding that the optimum lateral spacing for (Rodriguez, 2001). The capability of GIS to analyze the
corn was 1.40 m (one drip lateral per two crop rows). information across space and time would help in managing
Ravindra et al. (2008) developed a linear programming such dynamic systems as pressurized irrigation systems.
model for optimal design of pressurized irrigation system Hazrat et al. (2003) found that the GIS are an important tool
subunit, considering implementation cost and energy. that can be used to optimal allocation of water resources of
Holzapfel et al. (2007a; 2007b) analysed the optimal an irrigation project. Mean water balance components results
selection of emitters and sprinkler taking into account the for different months were stored in GIS databases, analyzed,
total cost, operation and implementation. Rodríguez et al. and displayed as the monthly crop water requirements maps.
(2007) studied the selection of emitter on the basis of
hydraulic characteristics. On the other hand, annual water Intensive irrigated agriculture under pressurized
application cost per unit area has been analyzed at the systems involves water application, fertilizers and other
subunit level designed with pipes of different materials by chemicals, applied in varying amounts to the crop and
Ortiz Romero et al. (2006). orchards areas. Yet, like any enhanced productive
Other important aspects are related with the analysis activity, it leads to environmental contamination if it is
of strategies for water management in pressurized improperly managed (Wichelns and Oster, 2006). When
irrigation systems (Ramalan and Hill, 2000). The timing or utilization of chemicals is incomplete or inefficient, or
frequency of water applications will depend on soil texture when water is applied in excess, the resultant seepage
(e.g., sand vs. clay), the irrigation system used (e.g., drip ends up in drainage systems or in recharging the aquifers
vs. sprinkler), the rate at which the plant is using water, beneath the cropped land (Hadas et al., 1999).
and the overall development of the plants root system.
Frequent water applications are especially important Surface irrigation systems
During the past two decades procedures and criteria
when using drip systems, which tend to restrict soil
wetting and thus produce a smaller root system. When of surface irrigation have become available, which have
20 CHILEAN J. AGRIC. RES. - VOL. 69 (Suppl. 1) - 2009

established the optimum design and efficient adequately select the irrigation variables in each
management and operation of the water applied to system with appropriate design criteria, improving the
crops to obtain maximum yield and avoid irrigation scheduling and water management of the
environmental effect due to leaching and runoff. field that will also potentially reduce over-irrigation and
The most frequently used surface irrigation
deep leaching of applied water and chemicals.
systems are: contour irrigation, border irrigation, and
furrow irrigation. The latter is more frequently used to General considerations
irrigate row crops and orchards. This method Design of irrigation systems is a very important topic
possesses various factors and elements of design and in the process to improve water application, efficiency and
management which have been extensively analyzed. economical return in the production process. To develop
Furrow irrigation is the oldest and more commonly used adequate engineering design, the use of well known
irrigation system. Lately, it has become important because of criteria it is a basic component; this can only be obtained
the high cost of energy in pressurized irrigation methods and with deep knowledge on irrigation, and the technical
the incorporation of automation in its operation (Holzapfel and parameters associated with crop, soil water
Arumí, 2006). Eldeiry et al. (2005) found in a study of design characteristics, energy and environment. Pereira (1999)
of furrow irrigation in clay soil that the furrow length and reported that to improve the irrigation systems requires
application discharge are the main factor affecting application the consideration of the factors influencing the hydraulic
efficiency. On the other hand, environmental impacts of processes, the water infiltration and the uniformity of
furrow irrigation has been studied by different researchers water application to the entire field. The consideration of
(Lehrsch et al., 2000) and has been found that in irrigation, all these aspects makes irrigation management a complex
risks of nitrate leaching depends of water and fertilizer decision making and field practice process.
application (Popova et al., 2005). Burguete et al. (2009a; Playán and Mateos (2006) reported that in general all
2009b) developed and calibrated a model and methodology irrigation systems can attain approximately the same level
for fertigation in furrow irrigation, which allow adequate of efficiency, when they are well designed and
fertilizer uniformity and avoid contamination problems. The appropriated selected for the specific condition, due that
automation of fertilization as well as water application are irrigation is site specific. However, differences among
very important advances for the development of furrow irrigation systems appear in many areas as a
irrigation and the improvement of surface irrigation systems. consequence of design, management and maintenance.
There are several reports indicating that trickle irrigation
The amounts of water and leachates vary with the type of systems increased yields in Washington Navel oranges
irrigation system used, irrigation efficiency, crop or orchard, (Citrus sinensis) in humid regions (Pannunzio et al., 2000;
utilization of water and fertilizers, decomposition of the added Pannunzio and Genoud, 2000), determining the
organic materials, and absorption of the decomposed convenience of wetting a minimum percentage of the
fractions. The leachates contain the chemicals mostly added shaded area by the crop to maximize yields, finding the
in irrigation water, but nitrate is the dominant anion, derived mini-sprinkler system as the most efficient.
from fertilizers and decomposing organic materials. In An adequate selection and distribution of number of
addition, pesticides are other chemicals incorporated in emitters in drip irrigation may give substantial different
irrigation and it has been shown that leaching increased in results (Rodríguez et al., 2007). Colombo and Or (2006)
direct relation with the increment of the amount of percolating found that in a drip irrigated field, local crop yield patterns
water produced by irrigation (Asare et al., 2001). The close are determined by spatial patterns in water accessibility to
association between leaching and amount of deep- plants that could be quantified and used for optimal
percolating water produced by irrigation is expected because irrigation system design; the results demonstrated that
leaching occurs through dissolution of solute in soil solution around each emitter, the spatial distribution of above-
and subsequently moves with soil water. These results can ground dry mass per plant followed a general pattern.
show the importance of using an adequate design of surface Number and location of drippers in a blueberry
and pressurized irrigation systems and management (Vaccinium corimbosum) crop was tested, finding out that
techniques to reduce chemical leaching by decreasing deep
the shallow and spread roots of the crop were well wetted
percolation.
by two laterals per each row of crop compared with a
In many irrigated regions of the western United States,
single line of drippers per row of crop, resulting in greater
commercial growers that use furrow irrigation systems are yields (Pannunzio et al., 2004a). Henríquez (2005) found
facing serious challenges to improve irrigation efficiency and that with a correct number and distribution of emitter on
reduce contamination of water supplies (Rice et al., 2001). the base of soil and plant characteristic, there are
However, the most important points are to differences of 100% in yield for citrus orchards.
E. A. HOLZAPFEL et al. - DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATION… 21

WATER MANAGEMENT FOR IRRIGATION growth of the trees. However, fruit production was
not affected by any deficit irrigation strategy until
SYSTEMS
the fourth year when yield decreased slightly with
Deficit irrigation in fruit trees for management of combined deficit irrigation (Girona et al., 2005a).
irrigation systems Similar studies were made in almond, applying RDI
The concept of regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) during the kernel-filling phase (Girona et al., 2005b). In
was initially proposed to control vegetative growth the study during the first two experimental years, kernel
in peach orchards, determining in addition savings dry matter accumulation did not decrease, however,
in irrigation water without reducing yield. Thus, similar to previous works, cropping and kernel growth
deficit irrigation has been demonstrated as a useful were reduced during the third and fourth years of
tool to improve the irrigation management at field experiment due to a hypothetical depletion of the
scale for arid and semi-arid conditions. reservoirs. Water savings obtained with these deficit
Deficit irrigation has been used extensively for irrigation strategies may help to promote the adoption of
annual crops in the past. Thus, was applied to corn regulated deficit irrigation in areas with water availability
(Payero et al., 2006; Farré and Faci, 2006); cotton reduced. The main difference among this experiment and
(Gossypium hirsutum) (Jalota et al., 2006; Falkenberg previous analyses was the irrigation system; in this case
et al., 2007); wheat (Triticum aestivum) (Jalota et al., micro -sprinklers were used. This fact could affect the
2006); sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) (Farré and Faci, wetted soil volume. Some authors (Hutmacher et al.,
2006); onion (Allium cepa) (Bekele and Tilahun, 2007) 1994) suggested the possibility to obtain better results
and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) (Fabeiro et al., 2003). using micro-sprinklers, confirmed by Girona et al. (2005b)
However deficit irrigation has had significantly more who indicated that wet soil volume was a very important
success in tree crops and vines than in field crops factor for almond. Thus, specific studies comparing drip
(Fereres and Soriano, 2007). Analyses of deficit irrigation and micro -sprinklers systems indicated that also for
in trees have been related with peaches (Girona et al., others crops as grapevines irrigated by micro sprinklers,
2005a); almonds (Prunus dulcis) (Romero et al., 2004; showed greater root presence as the distance from the
Girona et al., 2005b; Romero et al., 2006; Goldhamer et trunk increased (Bassoi et al., 2003).
al., 2006); pistachio (Pistacia vera) (Goldhamer and Also in almond with micro-sprinkler irrigation, Goldhamer
Beede, 2004); plum (Prunus domestica) (Intrigliolo and et al. (2006) analyzed the impacts of three different water
Castel, 2006); olives (Olea europaea) (Moriana et al., stress timing patterns. The most successful stress timing
2003; Tognetti et al., 2006); citrus (Domingo et al., 1996; pattern in terms of yield (considering fruit size and load) was
González-Altozano and Castel, 1999; Velez et al., 2007) the pattern that imposed sustained deficit irrigation by
and wine grapes (Vitis vinifera) (Bravdo and Naor, 1996; applying water a given percentage of full ETc over the entire
McCarthy et al., 2002). Analyzing all these studies, the season. Also Romero et al. (2004) analysed the influence of
conclusion would be that supplying full ET requirements several RDI strategies under subsurface and surface drip
could not be the optimal irrigation scheduling for irrigation. Thus, RDI, with a severe irrigation deprivation
management of irrigation systems. during kernel-filling (20% ETc), and a recovery post-harvest
A correct water management at field scale is highly at 75% ETc or up to 50% ETc under subsurface drip
influenced by the irrigation method and the irrigation irrigation, can be adequate in almonds under semiarid
operating system. Traditionally deficit irrigation strategies conditions, saving a significant amount of irrigation water.
were carried out on-demand irrigation systems, where the The comparison between surface and sub-surface irrigation
date and rate of the irrigation was decided by the farmer indicated higher levels of volumetric soil water content for
or technician, and the irrigation scheduling was not limited sub-superficial systems (Romero et al., 2004).
by the distribution system. Equally, for fruit trees drip and
micro-sprinkler systems are the most common irrigation Comparisons among surface drip, subsurface drip
methods, although surface irrigation methods under an and micro-jet on almonds indicated that micro-jet irrigated
appropriate water management could provide similar trees tended to increase yield about 10% in some years
efficiency and performance results. although no consistent yield differences were found
Authors as Girona et al. (2005a) analysed the (Edstrom and Schwankl, 2002). Considering growth
response to single and combined deficit irrigation regimes under deficit irrigation, micro-jet irrigated trees induced
for peach trees with an automated drip system with four slightly higher growth, similar results that when root
compensating emitters per tree. Thus, it was obtained that development was analysed. However, as negative
deficit irrigation during Stage II of fruit development and/ aspect, micro-jet irrigation increased maintenance and
or during post-harvest significantly reduced vegetative required higher use of herbicide.
22 CHILEAN J. AGRIC. RES. - VOL. 69 (Suppl. 1) - 2009

Deficit irrigation effects on yield and vegetative irrigation application, efficiency and economical return
development also have been analyzed for drip irrigated in the production process. The design must be on the
olives. Thus, some authors (Tognetti et al., 2006) basis of sound criteria that are mainly related with
determined that water availability might affect fruit weight knowledge on irrigation, hydraulic, economic, energy,
before flowering or during the early stages of fruit growth environmental and agronomics aspects.
rather than later in summer season. Thus, irrigation of Efficient irrigation systems design at farm level appear
olive trees with drip systems from the beginning of pit to be a very important aspect for the irrigated agriculture
hardening could be recommended, at least in the and a key factor due to the competition for water
experimental conditions of the study. Comparing different resources with other sectors and to permit the economical
treatments, deficit irrigation during the whole summer and environmental sustainability of agriculture. In general,
resulted in improved plant water relations with respect to surface and pressurized irrigation systems can attain a
other watering regimes, while severe RDI differentiated reasonable level of efficiency, when they are well
only slightly treatments from rain fed plants (Tognetti et designed, adequately operated and appropriately selected
al., 2005). Nevertheless, regulated deficit irrigation of for specific conditions; because irrigation is site specific.
olive trees after pit hardening could be recommended. Automation of the irrigation systems (surface and
Citrus also has been studied under deficit irrigation pressurized) coupled with sensor and equipments to
strategies. Thus, deficit irrigation treatments compared
register the information of the irrigation process are
important topic that must be developed in order to use
with the control drip irrigated by six pressure
the systems with their total potentiality.
compensated emitters by tree allowed seasonal water
saving between 12 and 18% (Velez et al., 2007).
Regulated deficit irrigation proposed to control
vegetative growth in orchards produce, in addition,
Recent methodologies applied to the water savings in irrigation water without reducing yield.
manage-ment and stress detection Thus, deficit irrigation has been demonstrated as a
Several studies about deficit irrigation have used new
useful tool to improve irrigation management at field
technologies as remote sensing techniques. The use of
scale for arid and semi-arid conditions.
infrared thermometry and thermal imaging is considered
an interesting option in order to monitoring stress in trees, RESUMEN
as Sepulcre-Cantó et al. (2006) described for stress
detection in olive trees from infrared imagery. Also Diseño y manejo de sistemas de riego. Los sistemas de
Falkenberg et al. (2007) with an infrared camera riego deberían ser un agente relevante para dar soluciones a
distinguished between biotic (root rot) and abiotic la demanda creciente de alimentos, y el desarrollo,
(drought) stress with the assistance of ground truthing, sustentabilidad y productividad del sector agrícola. El diseño,
determining that deficit irrigation around 75% ETc had no manejo, y operación de los sistemas de riego son factores
impact on yield, indicating that water savings were cruciales para lograr un uso eficiente de los recursos hídricos
possible without reducing yield. y el éxito en la producción de cultivos y frutales. El objetivo de
In addition to remote sensing technology, este artículo fue analizar conocimientos e investigaciones que
lysimeter also has been used to characterize deficit permitan identificar los principales criterios y procesos para
irrigation and stress for orchard trees as peaches mejorar el diseño y manejo de los sistemas de riego, basados
(Girona et al., 2004). In this work it was established en el concepto básico de desarrollar una agricultura más
threshold levels of available soil water content for eficiente y sostenible. El diseño y manejo de los sistemas de
ET, leaf conductance and photosynthesis during riego deben tener su base en criterios que sean relevantes, lo
deficit irrigation periods, demonstrating the que implica considerar aspectos agronómicos, de suelo,
importance of considering wetting patterns, soil hidráulicos, económicos, energéticos, y ambientales. El
depth and root exploration in high frequency diseño y manejo óptimo de los sistemas de riego a nivel
irrigation management, especially for tree crops. predial es un factor de primera importancia para un uso
racional del agua, el desarrollo económico de la agricultura y
CONCLUSIONS
su sustentabilidad ambiental.

Irrigation system design substantially affects

application efficiency and involves numerous variables Palabras clave: riego, diseño, manejo de agua,
and restrictions whose principal objectives are to operación de sistemas.
maximize benefits and minimize costs. Design of
irrigation systems is a very important topic to improve
E. A. HOLZAPFEL et al. - DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATION… 23

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HortScience 21:997-998. arid regions. Appl. Eng. Agric. 21:411-420.
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