Solar Energy System

Renewable Energy?
• Renewable energy, collected from renewable resources, which are
naturally replaced on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain,
tides, waves, and geothermal heat
• Most of modern technology comes from electricity and almost all of
electricity we generate comes from sources that wouldn’t exist without the
Sun
 Problem with Fossil Fuels
• By some estimates, the total energy of the fossil fuels accumulated in the
Earth’s crust in the past 500 million years is 1023J (Joules)
• However, humans are currently using 1x1020 Joules/year of electricity! At
this rate, we will run out of fossil fuels in the next 100 years!
• Fossil fuels are depleting faster than they are producing. Fossil fuels are
going extinct!
 Solar Energy
• Renewable energy sources don’t get depleted but there is a limit to how
much power they can provide
• The most abundant renewable energy source is solar energy
• Solar energy is mainly used in two ways; photovoltaics and solar thermal
energy
• When sunlight falls on a semi-conductor, and electrons are excited which
then form electrical current. So directly sunlight is converted into
electricity
Sun and Sunlight
 Wave nature of Light
• Some scientists, including Newton, believed that light was carried by
particles which move in straight lines
• English scientist Thomas Young discovered that light moved not in a
straight line but in the form of waves
 Electromagnetic Sunlight
• It is a kind of radiation including visible light, radio waves, gamma rays,
and X-rays, in which electric and magnetic fields vary simultaneously
• Sunlight is electromagnetic radiation from the Sun
• Some of the properties of electromagnetic radiation are:
• Intensity
• Direction
• Wavelength
• Frequency
 Quantization of Light
• Quantization means that something cannot be further separated into
arbitrarily small pieces: eventually, you reach a piece small enough that it
can no longer be divided
• Albert Einstein discovered the photoelectric effect with the introduction of
the "photon", a quantized packet of electromagnetic radiation
• His work on photons would lead to him winning the 1921 Nobel Prize in
physics.
• Light being quantized into photons, similar to how matter is quantized
into atoms
 Photoelectric Effect
• Some materials will emit electrons when light is shined on them - this is
called the photoelectric effect.
• The photoelectric effect occurs because energy delivered by the light can
be absorbed by electrons, and once an electron has gained enough energy,
it can escape from its host material
 Photovoltaic Effect
• Very high energy photons are required to cause the photoelectric effect,
and most solar photons would not be energetic enough to eject an electron
• PV cells make use of the Photovoltaic Effect
• The photovoltaic effect is similar to the photoelectric effect, but instead of
energizing electrons so much that they're ejected from the material, the
electrons are energized while still being contained in the material
• The photoelectric effect is usually observed in metals, while the
photovoltaic effect is observed in semiconductors
 Solar Module
• A solar module, or photovoltaic (PV) module, is a device that
converts light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect
• A solar panel is made up of multiple solar cells
• The array of a PV system, produces direct current (DC) power
which fluctuates with the sunlight's intensity
• For practical use this usually requires conversion to certain
desired voltages or alternating current (AC), through the use of
inverters
• Types of solar modules depend on the type of solar cell they
are made up of!
 Solar Panel, Module and Array

• The terms ‘Solar Panel’, ‘Solar Module’, ‘Photovoltaic Panel’ and

‘Photovoltaic Module’ mean the same thing
• In local terms in Pakistan, a solar panel is often called ‫ش یشہ‬
• The technically correct term is PV Module
• Multiple solar cells are connected to form solar modules
• Modules are wired together to form solar arrays
• Solar arrays are then tied to an inverter, which produces power at
the desired voltage, and for AC, the desired frequency/phase
 Solar Cell
• A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts
the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect
• In basic terms, a single junction silicon solar cell can produce a
maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts
• Usually the size of a solar cell is 156 mm x 156 mm or 6 inches x 6
inches
• The greater the number of cells in a module, the greater the power
of the module
• Usually, a 250W module has 60 cells while a 330W module has 72
cells
• For 72 cells in a module, the cells are arranged in a 6x12 formation,
meaning the cells are arranged in 6 columns and 12 rows
 Integration of Cells in a Module
• Individual solar cell can be combined to form modules, otherwise known
as solar panels
• Multiple solar cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane,
constitute a solar photovoltaic module
• Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the sun-facing side,
allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers
• Solar cells are usually connected in series and parallel circuits or series in
modules, creating an additive voltage
• Connecting cells in parallel yields a higher current; however, problems
such as shadow effects can shut down the weaker (less illuminated)
parallel string (a number of series connected cells) causing substantial
power loss and possible damage because of the reverse bias applied to the
shadowed cells by their illuminated partners
• Strings of series cells are usually handled independently and not
connected in parallel
• For two cells connected in series, the current through the two cells is
the same. The total voltage produced is the sum of the individual cell
voltages
• Since the current must be the same, a mismatch in current means that
the total current from the configuration is equal to the lowest current
Solar cells connected in series
Solar cell connections in a 6x12 module
 Module Structure
• A PV module consists of a number of
interconnected solar cells encapsulated
into a single, long-lasting, stable unit
• The key purpose of encapsulating a set of
electrically connected solar cells is to
protect them and their interconnecting
wires from the typically harsh
environment in which they are used
• Many different types of PV modules
exist and the module structure is often
different for different types of solar cells
or for different applications
 Module Materials

• Most silicon PV modules consist of a

transparent top surface, an encapsulant,
a rear layer and a frame around the
outer edge
• In most modules, the top surface is glass,
the encapsulant is EVA (Ethyl Vinyl
Acetate) and the rear layer is Tedlar
 Front Surface Material
• The front surface of a PV module must have a high transmission in the
wavelengths which can be used by the solar cells in the PV module
• For silicon solar cells, the top surface must have high transmission of light
in the wavelength range of 350 nm to 1200 nm
• Also, the reflection from the front surface should be low
• While theoretically this reflection could be reduced by applying an anti-
reflection coating to the top surface, in practice these coatings are not
robust enough to withstand the conditions in which most PV systems are
used
• An alternative technique to reduce reflection is to "roughen" or texture the
surface.
• But in this case the dust and dirt is more likely to attach itself to the top
surface, and less likely to be dislodged by wind or rain
• In addition to its reflection and transmission properties, the top surface
material should be impervious to water, should have good impact
resistance, should be stable under prolonged UV exposure and should
have a low thermal resistivity
• Water or water vapor ingress into a PV module will corrode the metal
contacts and interconnects, and consequently will dramatically reduce
the lifetime of the PV module
• There are several choices for a top surface material including acrylic,
polymers and glass
• Tempered, low iron-content glass is most commonly used as it is low
cost, strong, stable, highly transparent, impervious to water and gases
and has good self-cleaning properties
 Encapsulant
• An encapsulant is used to provide adhesion between the solar cells,
the top surface and the rear surface of the PV module
• The encapsulant should be stable at elevated temperatures and high
UV exposure
• It should also be optically transparent and should have a low thermal
resistance
• EVA (ethyl vinyl acetate) is the most commonly used encapsulant
material
• EVA comes in thin sheets which are inserted between the solar cells
and the top surface and the rear surface
• This sandwich is then heated to 150 °C to polymerize the EVA and
bond the module together
 Rear Surface
• The key characteristics of the rear surface of the PV module are that it
must have low thermal resistance and that it must prevent the ingress
of water or water vapour
• In most modules, a thin polymer sheet, typically Tedlar, is used as the
rear surface
• Some PV modules, known as bifacial modules are designed to accept
light from either the front or the rear of the solar cell
• In bifacial modules both the front and the rear must be optically
transparent
 Frame of the Module
• A final structural component of the module is the edging or framing of the
module
• A conventional PV module frame is typically made of Aluminum
• The frame structure should be free of projections which could result in the
lodgement of water, dust or other matter
 Packing Density of Solar Cells
• The packing density of solar cells in a PV module refers to the area
of the module that is covered with solar cells compared to that
which is blank
• The packing density affects the output power of the module as well
as its operating temperature
• The packing density depends on the shape of the solar cells used
• Single crystalline solar cells are round or semi-square, while
multicrystalline silicon wafers are usually square
• Therefore, if single-crystalline solar cells are not cut squarely, the
packing density of a single crystalline module will be lower than
that of a multicrystalline module
• The packing density of round and square cells
• The round ingots of Si material give a low packing density so the edges are
cut off to produce semi-square cells and higher packing density
• Multicrystalline material is cast in square blocks, giving a high packing
density
 Shading of a Cell
• Photovoltaic cell electrical output is extremely sensitive to shading
• When even a small portion of a cell, module, or array is shaded, while the
remainder is in sunlight, the output falls dramatically due to internal 'short-
circuiting'
• If the current drawn from the series string of cells is no greater than the current
that can be produced by the shaded cell, the current (and so power) developed
by the string is limited
• If enough voltage is available from the rest of the cells in a string, current will
be forced through the cell by breaking down the junction in the shaded portion
• This breakdown voltage in common cells is between 10 and 30 volts. Instead of
adding to the power produced by the panel, the shaded cell absorbs power,
turning it into heat
• Since the reverse voltage of a shaded cell is much greater than the forward
voltage of an illuminated cell, one shaded cell can absorb the power of many
other cells in the string, disproportionately affecting panel output.
• For example, a shaded cell may drop 8 volts, instead of adding 0.5 volts, at
a particular current level, thereby absorbing the power produced by 16
other cells
 Mismatch Effects of Solar Cells
• Mismatch losses are caused by the interconnection of solar cells or
modules which do not have identical properties or which experience
different conditions from one another
• Mismatch losses are a serious problem in PV modules and arrays under
some conditions because the output of the entire PV module under
worst case conditions is determined by the solar cell with the lowest
output
• Mismatch in PV modules occurs when the electrical parameters of one
solar cell are significantly altered from those of the remaining devices.
The impact and power loss due to mismatch depend on:
• the operating point of the PV module;
• the circuit configuration; and
• the parameter(s) which are different from the remainder of the solar cell
 Mismatch Effects in a Solar Array

• In a larger PV array, individual PV modules are connected in both

series and parallel. A series-connected set of solar cells or modules is
called a "string“
• The combination of series and parallel connections may lead to several
problems in PV arrays
• One potential problem arises from an open-circuit in one of the series
strings
• The current from the parallel connected string will then have a lower
current than the remaining blocks in the module
 Solar Cell Efficiency
• Solar cell efficiency refers to the portion of energy in the form of
sunlight that can be converted through photovoltaics into electricity
• The efficiency of the solar cells used in a photovoltaic system, in
combination with latitude and climate, determines the annual
energy output of the system
• Solar cell efficiency may be broken down into reflectance efficiency,
thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency and
conductive efficiency
• The overall efficiency is the product of these individual metrics
• Due to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other
parameters are substituted: thermodynamic efficiency, quantum
efficiency, integrated quantum efficiency, VOC ratio and fill factor
 Shockley-Queisser Limit
• Shockley-Queisser limit refers to the maximum theoretical efficiency of a
solar cell using a single p-n junction to collect power from the cell where
the only loss mechanism is radiative recombination in the solar cell
• The limit is that the maximum solar conversion efficiency is around 33.7%
for a single p-n junction photovoltaic cell, assuming typical sunlight
conditions
• This maximum occurs at a band gap of 1.34 eV
• This means that of all the power contained in sunlight (about 1000 W/m²)
falling on an ideal solar cell, only 33.7% of that could ever be turned into
electricity (337 W/m²)
• Silicon, has a less favorable band gap of 1.1 eV, resulting in a maximum
efficiency of about 32%
• Mono-crystalline solar cells produce about 24% conversion efficiency
 Solar Cell Material
• Solar cells are typically named after the semiconducting material
they are made of
• These materials must have certain characteristics in order to absorb
sunlight
• Some cells are designed to handle sunlight that reaches the Earth's
surface, while others are optimized for use in space
• Solar cells can be classified into first, second and third generation
cells
• The first generation cells (also called conventional, traditional or
wafer-based cells) are made of crystalline silicon, the commercially
predominant PV technology, that includes materials such as
polysilicon and monocrystalline silicon
• Second generation cells are thin film solar cells, that include
amorphous silicon, CdTe and CIGS cells and are commercially
significant in utility-scale photovoltaic power stations, building
integrated photovoltaics or in small stand-alone power system
• The third generation of solar cells includes a number of thin-film
technologies often described as emerging photovoltaics—most of
them have not yet been commercially applied and are still in the
research or development phase
• For this course, we’ll only study crystalline silicon solar cells
• Crystalline solar cells are of two types: monocrystalline silicon
solar cells and multi-crystalline or polycrystalline silicon solar
cells
 Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
• Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)
solar cells are more efficient and
more expensive than most other
types of cells
• The corners of the cells look clipped,
like an octagon, because the wafer
material is cut from cylindrical ingots
• Solar panels using mono-Si cells
display a distinctive pattern of small
white diamonds
 Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
• Polycrystalline silicon, or multi-
crystalline silicon (multi-Si) cells are
made from cast square ingots, large
blocks of molten silicon carefully
cooled and solidified
• They consist of small crystals giving
the material its typical metal flake
effect
• Polysilicon cells are the most
common type used in photovoltaics
and are less expensive, but also less
efficient, than those made from
monocrystalline silicon
 Solar Mounting Structure

• Solar mounting structures are made up of steel or an alloy of steel

• Mounting structures are designed to hold solar panels in a fixed
positions
• Mounting structures are designed to withstand strong winds so
that solar panels are safe
• There are two types of mounting structures; rooftop mounting and
ground mounting
 Rooftop Mounting
• The solar array of a PV system can be mounted on rooftops,
generally with a few inches gap and parallel to the surface of the
roof
• If the rooftop is horizontal, the array is mounted with each panel
aligned at an angle
• If the panels are planned to be mounted before the construction of
the roof, the roof can be designed accordingly by installing support
brackets for the panels before the materials for the roof are installed
• If the roof is already constructed, it is relatively easy to retrofit
panels directly on top of existing roofing structures
Solar mounting structure on tilted rooftops
Solar mounting structure on traditional rooftops
 Ground Mounting
• Ground-mounted PV systems are usually large, utility-scale
photovoltaic power stations
• The PV array consist of solar modules held in place by racks or frames
that are attached to ground-based mounting supports
• Ground-based mounting supports include:
• Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or
embedded in concrete.
• Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings
• Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use
weight to secure the solar module system in position and do not
require ground penetration
Ground mounting photovoltaic array
 Solar Tracking Structure
• A solar tracking system tilts a solar panel throughout the day
• Depending on the type of tracking system, the panel is either aimed
directly at the sun or the brightest area of a partly clouded sky
• Trackers greatly enhance early morning and late afternoon
performance, increasing the total amount of power produced by a
system by about 20–25% for a single axis tracker and about 30% or
more for a dual axis tracker, depending on latitude
• Trackers are effective in regions that receive a large portion of sunlight
directly.
• In diffuse light (i.e. under cloud or fog), tracking has little or no value
Single axis tracker
Dual axis tracker
 Inverter
• A solar inverter or PV inverter, is a type of electrical converter which
converts the variable direct current (DC) output of a photovoltaic (PV)
solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC) that can be
fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid
electrical network
• A solar inverter may connect to a string of solar panels
• In some installations a solar micro-inverter is connected at each solar
panel
• For safety reasons a circuit breaker is provided both on the AC and DC
side to enable maintenance
• The number of modules in the system determines the total DC watts
capable of being generated by the solar array; however, the inverter
ultimately governs the amount of AC watts that can be distributed for
consumption
 Operation of an Inverter

• The basic idea behind every inverter circuit is to produce oscillations

using the given DC and apply these oscillations across the primary of
the transformer by amplifying the current
• This primary voltage is then stepped up to a higher voltage
depending upon the number of turns in primary and secondary coils
• The circuit can be divided into three parts: oscillator, amplifier and
transformer
• A 50Hz oscillator is required as the frequency of AC supply is 50Hz
 Maximum Power Point Tracking
• MPPT is a technique used commonly with wind turbines and photovoltaic
(PV) solar systems to maximize power extraction under all conditions
• Although solar power is mainly covered, the principle applies generally to
sources with variable power
• A load with resistance R=V/I equal to the reciprocal of this value draws
the maximum power from the device. This is sometimes called the
'characteristic resistance' of the cell. This is a dynamic quantity which
changes depending on the level of illumination, as well as other factors
such as temperature and the age of the cell.
• If the resistance is lower or higher than this value, the power drawn will be
less than the maximum available, and thus the cell will not be used as
efficiently as it could be
• MPPTs utilize different types of control circuit or logic to search for this
point and thus to allow the converter circuit to extract the maximum power
available from a cell
 Anti Islanding
• Islanding is the condition in which a distributed generator continues
to power a location even though electrical grid power is no longer
present
• Islanding can be dangerous to utility workers, who may not realize
that a circuit is still powered, and it may prevent automatic re-
connection of devices
• Also, without strict frequency control the balance between load and
generation in the islanded circuit is going to be violated, leading to
abnormal frequencies and voltages
• So, distributed generators must detect islanding and immediately
disconnect from the circuit; this is referred to as anti-islanding
• Anti-islanding basically means that when the utility grid is turned
off, distributed generation must also be turned off
 Stand Alone Inverters

• Stand-alone inverters, used in isolated systems where the inverter

draws its DC energy from batteries charged by photovoltaic
arrays
• Many stand-alone inverters also incorporate integral battery
chargers to replenish the battery from an AC source, when
available
• Normally these do not interface in any way with the utility grid,
and as such, are not required to have anti-islanding protection
• Stand alone inverters are also called off grid inverters
 Grid Tie Inverter

• Grid-tie inverters, which match phase with a utility-supplied

sine wave
• Grid-tie inverters are designed to shut down automatically upon
loss of utility supply, for safety reasons
• Grid tie inverters do not provide backup power during utility
outages
• Most of the inverters used in solar systems throughout the world
are grid tie inverters
 Hybrid Inverter

• Hybrid inverters or battery backup inverters, are special inverters

which are designed to draw energy from a battery, manage the
battery charge via an onboard charger, and export excess energy to
the utility grid
• These inverters are capable of supplying AC energy to selected
loads during a utility outage, and are required to have anti-islanding
protection
• They can have battery back up as well as be connected to the grid
 Micro Inverters
• Solar micro-inverter is an inverter designed to operate with a single
PV module
• The micro-inverter converts the direct current output from each
panel into alternating current
• Its design allows parallel connection of multiple, independent units
in a modular way.
• Micro-inverter advantages include single panel power optimization,
independent operation of each panel, plug-and play installation,
improved installation and fire safety, minimized costs with system
design and stock minimization
Micro-inverters connecting PV modules to the grid
Micro-inverters connecting PV modules and batteries to the grid
 Batteries
• Although still expensive, PV systems increasingly use rechargeable
batteries to store a surplus to be later used at night
• Batteries used for grid-storage also stabilize the electrical grid by
leveling out peak loads, and play an important role in a smart grid, as
they can charge during periods of low demand and feed their stored
energy into the grid when demand is high
• Common battery technologies used in today's PV systems include the
valve regulated lead-acid battery– a modified version of the
conventional lead–acid battery, nickel–cadmium and lithium-ion
batteries
• Lead-acid batteries have a shorter lifetime and lower energy density.
However, due to their high reliability, low self-discharge as well as low
investment and maintenance costs, they are currently the predominant
technology used in small-scale, residential PV systems, as lithium-ion
batteries are still being developed and about 3.5 times as expensive as
lead-acid batteries
 Lead Acid Batteries
• The lead–acid battery was invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston
Planté and is the oldest type of rechargeable battery
• Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-
volume ratio, its ability to supply high surge currents means that the
cells have a relatively large power-to-weight ratio
• These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use
in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile
starter motors
 Dry Batteries
• A dry cell is a type of electric battery, commonly
used for portable electrical devices
• It was developed in 1886 by the German
scientist Carl Gassner, after development of wet
zinc-carbon batteries by Georges Leclanché in
1866
• The modern version was developed by
Japanese Yai Sakizo in 1887
• A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only
enough moisture to allow current to flow
• Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any
orientation without spilling, as it contains no
free liquid, making it suitable for portable
equipment
• Lithium-ion battery is a type of dry battery
 Lithium Batteries
• A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a
type of rechargeable battery. Lithium-ion
batteries are commonly used for portable
electronics and electric vehicles and are
growing in popularity for military and
aerospace applications
• The batteries have a high energy density,
no memory effect and low self-discharge
• Li-ion batteries provide lightweight, high
energy density power sources for a
variety of devices
• To power larger devices, such as electric
cars, connecting many small batteries in a
parallel circuit is more effective
 Cabling
• Due to their outdoor usage, solar cables are specifically designed to be
resistant against UV radiation and extremely high temperature
fluctuations and are generally unaffected by the weather
• Solar cables interconnect solar panels and other electrical components
of a photovoltaic system
• A three-core AC cable is used for connection to the grid if a single-
phase inverter is used, and a four-core cable is used for three-phase
feed-in
• As a result, plastics which have been cross-linked (Polyethylene with
cross-links) are increasingly used today
• The insulation and jacket materials are extremely resistant to
weathering, UV-radiation
• DC cables are usually flexible and AC cables are usually stranded
Four core AC cable Single core DC cable
 Balance of System Components
• Balance of System (BOS) components include multiple different
components which include duct pipes, hard pipes, plugs, wire ties,
nuts, bolts, nails, screws, plugs, battery terminals, rawal bolts, AC
and DC breakers etc.
 What is Solar Availability?
• Solar availability is the measure of how much solar energy can be
captured and utilized with respect to the area available, the
technology used, time of day, direction of the PV panel and some
other factors
• With some simple geometry and knowledge of the total solar
output, it's easy to calculate just how much solar power reaches
Earth
• However first we need to understand the amount of light reach
the Earth and the Earth’s solar collecting area
 Solar Power
• Sunlight radiates outward from the Sun in all directions, so if we put a
light collecting sphere around the Sun, that sphere would absorb the same
amount of sunlight regardless of the sphere's diameter
• Since the total power output of the Sun must be constant, this means that a
larger sphere (with a larger area) would be absorbing sunlight at lower
intensity
Psun = constant = Asphere x Isphere
 Calculating the Sunlight that reaches Earth
• Sunlight is measured in the intensity of light
• By using the power from the Sun is approximately 3.85×1026 W,
we can calculate the intensity of sunlight at a distance of 1.5 x
1011m from the Sun (Distance from Sun to the Earth)
ISUN = Psun / Asphere
ISUN = Psun / 4πrSE2
​ ISUN = 3.85×1026 W / 4π x (1.5 x 1011)2
ISUN = 1361.66 W/m2

• Here, ISUN is the intensity of the sunlight above the Earth’s

atmosphere
 Power reaching the Earth

• The power reaching the Earth’s from

the Sun is dependent upon the
collecting area of the Earth
• It is also important to know the light
collecting area of the Earth. For this
calculation we don't need to know
Earth's surface area, but rather its
projected area
• The projection of a sphere is a circle:
this is why a sphere casts a circular
shadow onto a surface that is normal
to the direction of the incident light
Calculating the power reaching the Earth
•We can then calculate the power reaching the
Earth by simply multiplying the solar
intensity of the Sun and the surface collecting
area of the Earth.

PE = ISUN x πrE2
PE = 1361.66 x π x (6.37×106)2
PE = 1.74 x 1017 W

•The total power consumption of humans on

Earth is approximately 1 x 1013W, which is
way less than the amount of sunlight reaching
Earth!
Sunlight transmittance through Earth’s atmosphere
To find the intensity of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface, we need to
consider two things; the intensity of sunlight reaching the top of Earth's
atmosphere and the approximate transmittance value of sunlight through
the atmosphere. Given below is the transmittance of difference
wavelengths of sunlight:
•The average transmittance can be calculated as:
τavg = /
τavg 
τavg  0.675 = 67.5 %
•So the average transmittance of sunlight through the Earth’s atmosphere is
67.5%, approximately 70%
•The intensity of sunlight at the top of Earth’s atmosphere is 1366.66 W/m2.
Using the average transmittance of sunlight through the Earth’s atmosphere
(70%), we can calculate the intensity of sunlight on Earth’s surface as follows:
Isurf = 1366.66 x 0.70  1000 W/m2

where Isurf is the intensity of sunlight on the Earth’s surface

 Daily Solar Resource
•The daily solar resource can be defined to calculate how much
collection area is needed to meet a certain demand
•The daily solar resource is the amount of solar energy captured per area
per day in a particular place
•Intensity and daily solar resource both have the same dimensions:
energy per area per time
•However, they are typically measured in different units: intensity is
measured in W/m2 while daily solar resource is measured in kWh/(m2d)
•We can convert from intensity to daily solar resource by multiplying the
intensity by 24 h/1 d and 1 kW/1000 W, which are valid conversion
factors since 24 h = 1d and 1 kW = 1000 W
 Daily Solar Resource at Earth’s Surface
•The average daily solar resource at the Earth's surface is the total solar energy
reaching the Earth's surface each day, divided by the total surface area of the Earth
in one day
•The total solar energy reaching the Earth's surface over a day can be found by
multiplying the intensity at the Earth's surface with the projected area of the Earth
and one day, given by Isurf × πRE2 × 1d
•The total surface area of the Earth is given by 4πRE2
•The average daily solar resource at the Earth's surface is therefore given by:
​ Average daily solar resource = Isurf × πRE2 × 1d / 4πRE2 x 1d
= Isurf W/m2
​ Average daily solar resource = Isurf x kWh/m2d
 As Isurf  1000 W/m2,
Average daily solar resource = x 1000 x kWh/m2d
Average daily solar resource = 6 kWh/m2d

•This means that on average, devoting one square meter of surface area to
solar energy collection will allow us to collect 6 kWh of solar energy each
day
 Calculating Daily Solar Resource Area
• Daily Solar Resource Area is the area required to collect enough power to
fulfill a certain demand in one day
• Dividing the total demand by the electricity output from our collector yields
the total collector area required

Let's imagine a generic solar collector, which is able to convert 25% of the
sunlight incident on it into electricity
If Pakistan wants to meet their entire electricity demand of 25 GWh/d =
2.5×107 kWh/d) using solar power, how much collection area would be
required?
• Assume that the daily solar resource at the Earth's surface to be 6 kWh/(m2d)
• Hint: Since our collector is 25% efficient, that means it can provide
6kWh/(m2d) x 25% = 1.5 kWh/(m2d)
•Dividing the total demand by the electricity output from our collector
yields the total collector area required calculated as:

2.5x107 kWh/d / 1.5 kWh/(m2d) = 1.66x107 m2

•This means that only 16 km2 is required to meet electricity demand of

Pakistan! Therefore, it should be possible for Pakistan to meet their entire
electricity demand with solar energy.
 Angle of the Collector
• These calculations are true for areas lying on or near the equatorial line
• For locations far from the equator, a collector oriented horizontally on the
Earth's surface won't be able to collect the full solar flux
• Because the Sun never appears directly overhead at far Northern and far
Southern latitudes, the solar flux reaching a collector there would be
weaker
• Instead of using the average solar resource, it is useful to interpret the
average daily solar resource as a function of latitude angle ϕ
 Solar Resource at an Angle

• The expression for solar resource at an angle is given by the

expression:
Isurf x

Pakistan sits at a latitude of about 33∘ North. What is the collector area
required to meet its electricity needs?
• Assume we are using the same 25% efficient solar collector as before
• Hint: The solar resource at an angle will be less than the solar
resource at the Earth’s surface
Daily available solar resource = 1000 x x kWh/(m2d) x 0.25
Daily available solar resource = 1.66 kWh/(m2d)

The total electricity demand of Pakistan is 2.5x107 kWh/d

Dividing the total demand by the electricity output from our collector
yields the total collector area required calculated as:

2.5x107 kWh/d / 1.66 kWh/(m2d) = 15x106 m2  15 km2

 Directionality of Sunlight
•Because the Sun is so small in the sky,
the sunlight that reaches Earth has an
almost uniform direction: its
orientation is the same as the vector
pointing from the Sun to the Earth
•Sunlight only deviates from this
direction by 0.27∘ at most
•While sunlight has an almost uniform
direction, due to the Earth’s orbit, tilt
and rotation, the Sun’s apparent
position in the sky is always changing
 Intensity at a Latitude

If the solar altitude is 45∘ then the intensity reaching a horizontal solar collector
when the can be given as
Isurf = Ibeam sinα

Where Ibeam is the solar intensity in the direction normal to the Sun
Plugging in α = 45∘ and Ibeam = 1000 W/m2 gives
Isurf = 707 W/m2
 Effect of the Tilt Angle
• In order to maximize the energy collected by our collector, we want to
maximize its projected area with respect to the direction of the sun
• At a latitude of 40∘N, sunlight will appear to come from ∼ 40∘ south of
overhead (this will change depending on the season, but will average out
to 40∘)
To align the collector so it is as close to normal with the incident sunlight as
possible, it should be tilted 40∘ to the South
 Direction of the Collector
• When sunlight reach the Earth's surface with a large incidence angle,
it reduces the solar resource, since the same amount of sunlight is
spread over a larger surface area compared to the case of normal
incidence
• The reduced solar resource at higher latitudes can be addressed by
tilting solar collectors towards the equator
• In the northern hemisphere, collectors can be tilted south
• In the southern hemisphere, collectors can be tilted north
• By tilting a collector in this way, sunlight no longer has a large
incidence angle on the collector
 Solar Tracking System
•Suppose we decide a stationary collector doesn't collect enough energy, so
we decide to give it an upgrade: we raise the collector onto a tracking
system that can rotate the collector so it always points towards the Sun
•The energy that the new and improved system be able to collect on the
equinox (the day which is exactly 12 h long, at all latitudes) can be
calculated
• Because the collector that has been upgraded to track the Sun always faces
towards the Sun, that means the power incident on it is always 24
kWh/(m2d) (as long as Sun is above the horizon)
• On the equinox, there are 12 h (or equivalently 0.5 d) of daylight, so the
total energy collected is simply given by

24 kWh/(m2d) × 0.5 d × 1 m2 = 12 kWh

• Tracking the Sun allows us to collect more solar energy with the same amount of
collector area
• This is because a collector facing towards the Sun always sees the direct solar
intensity, rather than a reduced value