Chapter 2

VAPOR AND COMBINED

POWER CYCLES
 Objectives
• Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for
which the working fluid remains a gas throughout the
entire cycle.
• Analyze vapor power cycles in which the working fluid
is alternately vaporized and condensed.
• Analyze power generation coupled with process
heating called cogeneration.
• Investigate ways to modify the basic Rankine vapor
power cycle to increase the cycle thermal efficiency.
• Analyze the reheat and regenerative vapor power
cycles.
• Analyze power cycles that consist of two separate
cycles known as combined cycles and binary cycles.
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THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature
limits but it is not a suitable model for power cycles. Because:
Process 1-2 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems severely limits the
maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (374°C for water)
Process 2-3 The turbine cannot handle steam with a high moisture content because of the
impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear.
Process 4-1 It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases.
The cycle in (b) is not suitable since it requires isentropic compression to extremely
high pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures.

1-2 isothermal heat

addition in a boiler
2-3 isentropic expansion
in a turbine
3-4 isothermal heat
rejection in a condenser
4-1 isentropic
compression in a
compressor

T-s diagram of two Carnot vapor cycles.

3
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated
by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the
condenser. The cycle that results is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle
for vapor power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal
irreversibilities.

The simple ideal Rankine cycle. 4

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
Steady-flow energy equation

The efficiency of power plants in

the U.S. is often expressed in
terms of heat rate, which is the
amount of heat supplied, in Btu’s,
to generate 1 kWh of electricity.
The thermal efficiency can be interpreted
as the ratio of the area enclosed by the
cycle on a T-s diagram to the area under
the heat-addition process.
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DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER
CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a
result of irreversibilities in various components.
Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common sources
of irreversibilities. Isentropic efficiencies

(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle.
(b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.
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HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE
RANKINE CYCLE?
The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency
of a power cycle is the same: Increase the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.

Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

To take advantage of the increased
efficiencies at low pressures, the condensers
of steam power plants usually operate well
below the atmospheric pressure. There is a
lower limit to this pressure depending on the
temperature of the cooling medium
Side effect: Lowering the condenser
pressure increases the moisture content of
the steam at the final stages of the turbine.
The effect of lowering the
condenser pressure on the
ideal Rankine cycle.
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Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures
(Increases Thigh,avg)
Both the net work and heat input
increase as a result of superheating
the steam to a higher temperature.
The overall effect is an increase in
thermal efficiency since the average
temperature at which heat is added
increases.
Superheating to higher temperatures
decreases the moisture content of the
steam at the turbine exit, which is
desirable.
The temperature is limited by
The effect of superheating the metallurgical considerations. Presently
steam to higher temperatures the highest steam temperature allowed
on the ideal Rankine cycle. at the turbine inlet is about 620°C.

8
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
For a fixed turbine inlet temperature, Today many modern steam power
the cycle shifts to the left and the plants operate at supercritical
moisture content of steam at the pressures (P > 22.06 MPa) and
turbine exit increases. This side have thermal efficiencies of about
effect can be corrected by reheating 40% for fossil-fuel plants and 34%
the steam. for nuclear plants.

The effect of increasing the boiler

A supercritical Rankine cycle.
pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle. 9
 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures
without facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures. It is limited metallurgically.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between (reheat)

The ideal reheat Rankine cycle.

10
The single reheat in a modern power
plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to
5% by increasing the average
temperature at which heat is transferred
to the steam.
The average temperature during the
reheat process can be increased by
increasing the number of expansion and
reheat stages. As the number of stages is
increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach an isothermal
process at the maximum temperature.
The use of more than two reheat stages
is not practical. The theoretical
improvement in efficiency from the
second reheat is about half of that which The average temperature at which
results from a single reheat. heat is transferred during
The reheat temperatures are very close reheating increases as the
or equal to the turbine inlet temperature. number of reheat stages is
increased.
The optimum reheat pressure is about
one-fourth of the maximum cycle
pressure. 11
THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE
Heat is transferred to the working fluid
during process 2-2 at a relatively low
temperature. This lowers the average
heat-addition temperature and thus the
cycle efficiency.
In steam power plants, steam is extracted
from the turbine at various points. This
steam, which could have produced more
work by expanding further in the turbine, is
used to heat the feedwater instead. The
device where the feedwater is heated by
regeneration is called a regenerator, or a
feedwater heater (FWH).
The first part of the heat-addition A feedwater heater is basically a heat
process in the boiler takes place at exchanger where heat is transferred from
relatively low temperatures. the steam to the feedwater either by
mixing the two fluid streams (open
feedwater heaters) or without mixing them
(closed feedwater heaters).
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Open Feedwater Heaters
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater
heater is basically a mixing chamber,
where the steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting
the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at the
heater pressure.

The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.

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Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is
the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the
extracted steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two
streams now can be at different pressures, since they do not mix.

The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.

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The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing
network, and thus they are more expensive. Heat transfer in closed feedwater
heaters is less effective since the two streams are not allowed to be in direct contact.
However, closed feedwater heaters do not require a separate pump for each heater
since the extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different pressures.

Open feedwater
A steam power plant with one open heaters are simple
and three closed feedwater heaters. and inexpensive
and have good
heat transfer
characteristics. For
each heater,
however, a pump is
required to handle
the feedwater.

Most steam power

plants use a
combination of
open and closed
feedwater heaters.

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SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF VAPOR
POWER CYCLES
Exergy destruction for a steady-flow system

Steady-flow, one-
inlet, one-exit

Exergy destruction of a cycle

For a cycle with heat transfer

only with a source and a sink

Stream exergy

A second-law analysis of vaporpower cycles reveals where the

largest irreversibilities occur and where to start improvements.

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COGENERATION
Many industries require energy input in the form of heat, called process
heat. Process heat in these industries is usually supplied by steam at 5 to
7 atm and 150 to 200°C. Energy is usually transferred to the steam by
burning coal, oil, natural gas, or another fuel in a furnace.

Industries that use large amounts

of process heat also consume a
large amount of electric power.
It makes sense to use the already-
existing work potential to produce
power instead of letting it go to
waste.
The result is a plant that produces
electricity while meeting the
process-heat requirements of
certain industrial processes
(cogeneration plant)
A simple process-heating plant.

Cogeneration: The production of more than one useful form of energy

(such as process heat and electric power) from the same energy source.
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Utilization
factor

• The utilization factor of the

ideal steam-turbine
cogeneration plant is
100%.
• Actual cogeneration plants
have utilization factors as
high as 80%.
• Some recent cogeneration
plants have even higher
utilization factors.
An ideal cogeneration plant.
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 At times of high demand for process heat, all
the steam is routed to the process-heating units
and none to the condenser (m7= 0). The waste
heat is zero in this mode.
If this is not sufficient, some steam leaving the
boiler is throttled by an expansion or pressure-
reducing valve to the extraction pressure P6 and
is directed to the process-heating unit.
Maximum process heating is realized when all
the steam leaving the boiler passes through the
PRV (m5= m4). No power is produced in this
mode.
When there is no demand for process heat, all
the steam passes through the turbine and the
condenser (m5=m6=0), and the cogeneration
plant operates as an ordinary steam power
plant.
A cogeneration plant with
adjustable loads.

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 COMBINED GAS–VAPOR POWER CYCLES
• The continued quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather
innovative modifications to conventional power plants.
• A popular modification involves a gas power cycle topping a vapor power cycle,
which is called the combined gas–vapor cycle, or just the combined cycle.
• The combined cycle of greatest interest is the gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle topping
a steam-turbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a higher thermal efficiency than
either of the cycles executed individually.
• It makes engineering sense to take advantage of the very desirable
characteristics of the gas-turbine cycle at high temperatures and to use the high-
temperature exhaust gases as the energy source for the bottoming cycle such as
a steam power cycle. The result is a combined gas–steam cycle.
• Recent developments in gas-turbine technology have made the combined gas–
steam cycle economically very attractive.
• The combined cycle increases the efficiency without increasing the initial cost
greatly. Consequently, many new power plants operate on combined cycles, and
many more existing steam- or gas-turbine plants are being converted to
combined-cycle power plants.
• Thermal efficiencies over 50% are reported.

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Combined gas–steam power plant.
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 Summary
• The Carnot vapor cycle
• Rankine cycle: The ideal cycle for vapor power cycles
 Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle
• Deviation of actual vapor power cycles from idealized ones
• How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
 Lowering the condenser pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)
 Superheating the steam to high temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)
 Increasing the boiler pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
• The ideal reheat Rankine cycle
• The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle
 Open feedwater heaters
 Closed feedwater heaters
• Second-law analysis of vapor power cycles
• Cogeneration
• Combined gas–vapor power cycles
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