1. The document discusses Relational Algebra and accessing MySQL databases. Relational Algebra allows querying relational databases through operations like select, project, join, and more.
2. Instructions are given on how to access a MySQL database through SSH on a server. Students are assigned individual databases that they can access by logging in and supplying passwords.
3. Examples show how to create tables in a database through SQL commands in a .sql file, and how to submit that file to create the tables in the assigned MySQL database.
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Relational Algebra Creating and Accessing Your Database
1. The document discusses Relational Algebra and accessing MySQL databases. Relational Algebra allows querying relational databases through operations like select, project, join, and more.
2. Instructions are given on how to access a MySQL database through SSH on a server. Students are assigned individual databases that they can access by logging in and supplying passwords.
3. Examples show how to create tables in a database through SQL commands in a .sql file, and how to submit that file to create the tables in the assigned MySQL database.
1. The document discusses Relational Algebra and accessing MySQL databases. Relational Algebra allows querying relational databases through operations like select, project, join, and more.
2. Instructions are given on how to access a MySQL database through SSH on a server. Students are assigned individual databases that they can access by logging in and supplying passwords.
3. Examples show how to create tables in a database through SQL commands in a .sql file, and how to submit that file to create the tables in the assigned MySQL database.
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
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Relational Algebra Creating and Accessing Your Database
1. The document discusses Relational Algebra and accessing MySQL databases. Relational Algebra allows querying relational databases through operations like select, project, join, and more.
2. Instructions are given on how to access a MySQL database through SSH on a server. Students are assigned individual databases that they can access by logging in and supplying passwords.
3. Examples show how to create tables in a database through SQL commands in a .sql file, and how to submit that file to create the tables in the assigned MySQL database.
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
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Relational Algebra
Creating and Accessing your database
Lecture 2 Relational Model Basic Notions Fundamental Relational Algebra Operations Additional Relational Algebra Operations Extended Relational Algebra Operations Null Values Modification of the Database Views Bags and Bag operations
Creating and accessing Mysql database Each student has database creating for him/her at server hercules To access the very first time do as follows: >ssh -l <userid> hercules System responds >enter password >your <password at CS system> > mysql -u <userid> -p >Enter password > <enter the password that are given to you for the database >mysql password=password(new password)
Accessing Your MySQL Database First you create <name>.sql file as follows for example:
use S10_<your database>; create table customers( customerid int unsigned not null auto_increment primary key, name char(50) not null, address char(100) not null, city char(30) not null);
create table orders ( orderid int unsigned not null auto_increment primary key, customerid int unsigned not null, amount float(6,2), date date not null);
create table books ( isbn char(13) not null primary key, author char (50), title char(100), price float(4,2) );
create table order_items ( orderid int unsigned not null, isbn char (13) not null, quantity tinyint unsigned, primary key (orderid, isbn));
create table book_reviews ( isbn char(13) not null primary key, review text); 2. In shell submit command: mysql -u <userid> -D <databaseName> -p < <yourfile>.sql
Basic Structure Formally, given sets D 1 , D 2 , . D n a relation r is a subset of D 1 x D 2 x x D n
Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a 1 , a 2 , , a n ) where each a i e D i
Example: customer_name = {Jones, Smith, Curry, Lindsay} customer_street = {Main, North, Park} customer_city = {Harrison, Rye, Pittsfield} Then r = { (Jones, Main, Harrison), (Smith, North, Rye), (Curry, North, Rye), (Lindsay, Park, Pittsfield) } is a relation over customer_name , customer_street, customer_city Attribute Types Each attribute of a relation has a name The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain of the attribute Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is, indivisible Note: multivalued attribute values are not atomic ({secretary. clerk}) is example of multivalued attribute position Note: composite attribute values are not atomic The special value null is a member of every domain The null value causes complications in the definition of many operations We shall ignore the effect of null values in our main presentation and consider their effect later Relation Schema A 1 , A 2 , , A n are attributes
R = (A 1 , A 2 , , A n ) is a relation schema Example: Customer_schema = (customer_name, customer_street, customer_city)
r(R) is a relation on the relation schema R Example: customer (Customer_schema) Relation Instance The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by a table An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table Jones Smith Curry Lindsay customer_name Main North North Park customer_street Harrison Rye Rye Pittsfield customer_city customer attributes (or columns) tuples (or rows) Database A database consists of multiple relations Information about an enterprise is broken up into parts, with each relation storing one part of the information account : stores information about accounts depositor : stores information about which customer owns which account customer : stores information about customers Storing all information as a single relation such as bank(account_number, balance, customer_name, ..) results in repetition of information (e.g., two customers own an account) and the need for null values (e.g., represent a customer without an account) Keys Let K _ R K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a unique tuple of each possible relation r(R) by possible r we mean a relation r that could exist in the enterprise we are modeling. Example: {customer_name, customer_street} and {customer_name} are both superkeys of Customer, if no two customers can possibly have the same name. K is a candidate key if K is minimal Example: {customer_name} is a candidate key for. Primary Key Keys Candidate keys Primary key K Superkeys Query Languages Language in which user requests information from the database. Categories of languages Procedural Non-procedural, or declarative Pure Procedural languages: Relational algebra Tuple relational calculus Domain relational calculus Pure languages form underlying basis of query languages that people use. What is algebra Mathematical model consisting of: Operands --- Variables or values; Operators --- Symbols denoting procedures that construct new values from a given values Relational Algebra is algebra whose operands are relations and operators are designed to do the most commons things that we need to do with relations Basic Relational Algebra Operations Select Project Union Set Difference (or Substract or minus) Cartesian Product Select Operation Notation: o p (r) p is called the selection predicate Defined as: o p (r) = {t | t e r and p(t)} Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of terms connected by : . (and), v (or), (not) Each term is one of: <attribute>op <attribute> or <constant> where op is one of: =, =, >, >. <. s Example of selection: Account(account_number, branch_name,balance) o branch-name=Perryridge (account) Select Operation Example Relation r A B C D o o | | o | | | 1 5 12 23 7 7 3 10 o A=B ^ D > 5 (r) A B C D o | o | 1 23 7 10 Project Operation Notation:
[ A1, A2, , Ak (r) where A 1 , A 2 are attribute names and r is a relation. The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by erasing the columns that are not listed Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets E.g. to eliminate the branch-name attribute of account [ account-number, balance (account)
If relation Account contains 50 tuples, how many tuples contains [ account-number, balance (account) ? If relation Account contains 50 tuples, how many tuples contains [ , balance (account) ? Project Operation Example Relation r: A B C o o | | 10 20 30 40 1 1 1 2 A C o o | | 1 1 1 2 = A C o | | 1 1 2 [ A,C (r) That is, the projection of a relation on a set of attributes is a set of tuples Union Operation Consider relational schemas: Depositor(customer_name, account_number) Borrower(customer_name, loan_number) For r s to be valid. 1. r, s must have the same number of attributes 2. The attribute domains must be compatible (e.g., 2nd column of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd column of s) Find all customers with either an account or a loan [ customer-name (depositor) [ customer-name (borrower) Union Operation Notation: r s Defined as: r s = {t | t e r or t e s}
Union Operation Example Relations r, s: r s: A B o o | 1 2 1 A B o | 2 3 r s A B o o | | 1 2 1 3 Set Difference Operation Notation r s Defined as: r s = {t | t e r and t e s} Set differences must be taken between compatible relations. r and s must have the same number of attributes attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
Set Difference Operation Example Relations r, s: r s: A B o o | 1 2 1 A B o | 2 3 s A B o | 1 1 r Cartesian-Product Operation Notation r x s Defined as: r x s = {t q | t e r and q e s} Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint. (That is, R S = C ). If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then renaming must be used. Cartesian-Product Operation-Example Relations r, s: r x s: A B o | 1 2 A B o o o o | | | | 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 C D o | |
o | |
10 10 20 10 10 10 20 10 E a a b b a a b b C D o | |
10 10 20 10 E a a b b r s Composition of Operations Can build expressions using multiple operations Example: o A=C (r x s) r x s
o A=C (r x s) A B o o o o | | | | 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 C D o | |
o | |
10 10 20 10 10 10 20 10 E a a b b a a b b A B C D E o | | 1 2 2 o | | 10 20 20 a a b Rename Operation Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of relational-algebra expressions. Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name. Example:
X (E) returns the expression E under the name X If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then
(A1, A2, , An) (E) returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with the attributes renamed to A1, A2, ., An.
x x Banking Example branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets)
borrower (customer-name, loan-number) Example Queries Find all loans of over $1200
Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than $1200
o amount > 1200 (loan)
[ loan-number (o amount
> 1200 (loan))
Additional Operations We define additional operations that do not add any power to the relational algebra, but that simplify common queries. Set intersection Natural join Division Assignment Set-Intersection Operation Notation: r s Defined as: r s ={ t | t e r and t e s } Assume: r, s have the same arity attributes of r and s are compatible Note: r s = r - (r - s) Set-Intersection Operation - Example Relation r, s:
r s A B o o | 1 2 1 A B o | 2 3 r s A B o 2 Notation: r s Natural-Join Operation Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively. Then, r s is a relation on schema R S obtained as follows: Consider each pair of tuples t r from r and t s from s. If t r and t s have the same value on each of the attributes in R S, add a tuple t to the result, where t has the same value as t r on r t has the same value as t s on s Example: R = (A, B, C, D) S = (E, B, D) Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E) r s is defined as: [ r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (o r.B = s.B . r.D = s.D (r x s)) Natural Join Operation Example Relations r, s: A B o |
o o 1 2 4 1 2 C D o
|
| a a b a b B 1 3 1 2 3 D a a a b b E o |
o e r A B o o o o o 1 1 1 1 2 C D o o
| a a a a b E o
o
o s r s Division Operation Suited to queries that include the phrase for all. Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively where R = (A 1 , , A m , B 1 , , B n ) S = (B 1 , , B n ) The result of r s is a relation on schema R S = (A 1 , , A m )
r s = { t | t e [ R-S (r) . u e s ( tu e r ) } r s Notation: Division Operation Example Relations r, s: r s: A B o | 1 2 A B o o o |
o o o e e | 1 2 3 1 1 1 3 4 6 1 2 r s Another Division Example A B o o o | |
a a a a a a a a C D o
| a a b a b a b b E 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 Relations r, s: r s: D a b E 1 1 A B o
a a C
r s Division Operation Definition in terms of the basic algebra operation Let r(R) and s(S) be relations, and let S _ R
r s = [ R-S (r) [ R-S ( ([ R-S (r) x s) [ R-S,S (r))
To see why [ R-S,S (r) simply reorders attributes of r
[ R-S ([ R-S (r) x s) [ R-S,S (r)) gives those tuples t in
[ R-S (r) such that for some tuple u e s, tu e r.
Assignment Operation The assignment operation () provides a convenient way to express complex queries. Write query as a sequential program consisting of a series of assignments followed by an expression whose value is displayed as a result of the query. Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation variable. Example: Write r s as temp1
[ R-S (r) temp2 [ R-S ((temp1 x s) [ R-S,S (r)) result = temp1 temp2 Example Queries Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an account, or both, from the bank Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an account at bank. [ customer-name (borrower) [ customer-name (depositor)
Example Queries Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch. Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch but do not have an account at any branch of the bank. [ customer-name (o branch-name = Perryridge
(o borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number (borrower x loan))) [ customer-name (depositor) [ customer-name (o branch-name=Perryridge
(o borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number (borrower x loan)))
Example Queries Find the largest account balance 1. Rename account relation as d 2. The query is:
[ balance (account) - [ account.balance
(o account.balance < d.balance (account x d (account))) Example Queries Employee(ename,street,city) Works(ename,cname,salary) Company(cname,city) Manages(ename,mname) Find the names of all employees who live in the same city and on the same street as do their managers
Find the names of all employees who earn more than every employee of BankOne Example Queries
[ cname (o str=mstr&city=mcity (employee (ename,mstr,mcity)(manages)))
Example Queries Find all customers who have an account from the Downtown and the Uptown branches. where CN denotes customer-name and BN denotes branch-name.
Query 1 [ CN (o BN=Downtown (depositor account)) [ CN (o BN=Uptown (depositor account)) Query 2 [ customer-name, branch-name
(depositor account)
temp(branch-name) ({(Downtown), (Uptown)}) Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in Brooklyn city. Example Queries [ customer-name, branch-name (depositor account) [ branch-name (o branch-city = Brooklyn (branch)) Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations Generalized Projection Outer Join Aggregate Functions Generalized Projection Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions to be used in the projection list.
[ F1, F2, , Fn (E) E is any relational-algebra expression Each of F 1 , F 2 , , F n are are arithmetic expressions involving constants and attributes in the schema of E. Given relation credit-info(customer-name, limit, credit- balance), find how much more each person can spend: [ customer-name, limit credit-balance (credit-info) Aggregate Functions and Operations Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a single value as a result. avg: average value min: minimum value max: maximum value sum: sum of values count: number of values Aggregate operation in relational algebra
G1, G2, , Gn g F1( A1), F2( A2),, Fn( An) (E) E is any relational-algebra expression G 1 , G 2 , G n is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty) Each F i is an aggregate function Each A i is an attribute name Aggregate Operation Example Relation r: A B o o | | o | | | C 7 7 3 10 g sum(c)
(r) sum-C 27 Aggregate Operation Example Relation account grouped by branch-name: branch-name g sum(balance) (account) branch-name account-number balance Perryridge Perryridge Brighton Brighton Redwood A-102 A-201 A-217 A-215 A-222 400 900 750 750 700 branch-name balance Perryridge Brighton Redwood 1300 1500 700 Aggregate Functions Result of aggregation does not have a name Can use rename operation to give it a name For convenience, we permit renaming as part of aggregate operation
branch-name g sum(balance) as sum-balance (account) Outer Join Example Relation loan Relation borrower customer-name loan-number Jones Smith Hayes L-170 L-230 L-155 3000 4000 1700 loan-number amount L-170 L-230 L-260 branch-name Downtown Redwood Perryridge Outer Join An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information. Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that does not match tuples in the other relation to the result of the join. Uses null values: null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking) false by definition. We shall study precise meaning of comparisons with nulls later Left Outer Join Join
loan Borrower loan-number amount L-170 L-230 3000 4000 customer-name Jones Smith branch-name Downtown Redwood Jones Smith null loan-number amount L-170 L-230 L-260 3000 4000 1700 customer-name branch-name Downtown Redwood Perryridge Left Outer Join loan Borrower Right Outer Join, Full Outer Join Right Outer Join loan borrower loan borrower Outer Join loan-number amount L-170 L-230 L-155 3000 4000 null customer-name Jones Smith Hayes branch-name Downtown Redwood null loan-number amount L-170 L-230 L-260 L-155 3000 4000 1700 null customer-name Jones Smith null Hayes branch-name Downtown Redwood Perryridge null Null Values It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some of their attributes null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist. The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null. Aggregate functions simply ignore null values For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like any other value, and two nulls are assumed to be the same Null Values Comparisons with null values return the special truth value unknown If false was used instead of unknown, then not (A < 5) would not be equivalent to A >= 5 Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown: OR: (unknown or true) = true, (unknown or false) = unknown (unknown or unknown) = unknown AND: (true and unknown) = unknown, (false and unknown) = false, (unknown and unknown) = unknown NOT: (not unknown) = unknown Result of select predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to unknown Modification of the Database The content of the database may be modified using the following operations: Deletion Insertion Updating All these operations are expressed using the assignment operator. Deletion A delete request is expressed similarly to a query, except instead of displaying tuples to the user, the selected tuples are removed from the database. Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete values on only particular attributes A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by: r r E where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra query. Deletion Examples Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch. Delete all accounts at branches located in Needham. r 1 o
branch_city = Needham (account branch ) r 2 [ branch_name, account_number, balance (r 1 ) r 3 [ customer_name, account_number (r 2 depositor) account account r 2
depositor depositor r 3
Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50 loan loan o amount > 0 and amount s 50 (loan) account account o branch_name = Perryridge (account )
Insertion To insert data into a relation, we either: specify a tuple to be inserted write a query whose result is a set of tuples to be inserted in relational algebra, an insertion is expressed by: r r E where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra expression. The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by letting E be a constant relation containing one tuple. Insertion Examples Insert information in the database specifying that Smith has $1200 in account A-973 at the Perryridge branch. Provide as a gift for all loan customers in the Perryridge branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve as the account number for the new savings account. account account {(Perryridge, A-973, 1200)} depositor depositor {(Smith, A-973)} r 1 (o branch_name = Perryridge (borrower loan)) account account [ branch_name, loan_number,200 (r 1 ) depositor depositor [ customer_name, loan_number (r 1 ) Updating A mechanism to change a value in a tuple without changing all values in the tuple Use the generalized projection operator to do this task
Each F i is either the i th attribute of r, if the i th attribute is not updated, or, if the attribute is to be updated F i is an expression, involving only constants and the attributes of r, which gives the new value for the attribute ) ( , , , , 2 1 r r l F F F [ Update Examples Make interest payments by increasing all balances by 5 percent. Pay all accounts with balances over $10,000 6 percent interest and pay all others 5 percent account [ account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.06 (o BAL > 10000 (account )) [ account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (o BAL s 10000 (account))
account [ account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (account) Expression Trees Leaves are operands --- either variables standing for relations or particular relations
Interior nodes are operators applied to their descendents [ customer-name, branch-name
depositor account Exercises Employee(ename,str,city) Works(ename,cname,sal) Company(cname,city) Manages(ename,mname) Joe Pine Kent Mike Pine Canton
Employee Carol Oak Kent
Matt Main Cleveland Lucy Pine Kent Sean Pine Kent Manages Joe Lucy Mike Lucy Carol Matt Lucy Matt Sean Lucy Works Joe GE 30K Mike GE 100K Lucy GE 60K Sean GE 40K Carol GE 70K Matt GE 40K Company GE Cleveland IBM NYC Find names of employees that live in the same city and the same street as their managers Employee Manages:
Joe Pine Kent Lucy Mike Pine Canton Lucy Carol Oak Kent Matt Lucy Pine Kent Matt Sean Pine Kent Lucy (Employee Manages) Employee2 Where mname=employee2.ename & street =employee2.street & city=employee2.street T Joe Pine Kent Lucy Pine Kent Mike Pine Canton Lucy Pine Kent Carol Oak Kent Matt Main Cleveland Lucy Pine Kent Matt Main Cleveland Sean Pine Kent Lucy Pine Kent Joe Pine Kent Lucy Pine Kent Sean Pine Kent Lucy Pine Kent
Project on ename: Joe Sean Find Employees that make more than their managers
Works Manages:
Joe GE 30K Lucy Mike GE 100K Lucy Carol GE 70K Matt Lucy GE 60K Matt Sean GE 40K Lucy (Works Manages) Works2 Where mname=works2.ename &salary >works2.salary T Joe GE 30K Lucy GE 60K Mike GE 100K Lucy GE 60K Carol GE 70K Matt GE 40K Lucy GE 60K Matt GE 40K Sean GE 40K Lucy GE 60K
Project on ename: Mike Carol Lucy Mike GE 100K Lucy GE 60K Carol GE 70K Matt GE 40K Lucy GE 60K Matt GE 40K Find all employees who make more money than any other employee
Works Works2 Joe GE 30K Mike GE 100K Joe GE 30K Carol GE 70K Joe GE 30K Lucy GE 60K Joe GE 30K Sean GE 40K Joe GE 30K Matt GE 40K Lucy GE 60K Carol GE 70K Lucy GE 60K Mike GE 100K Sean GE 40K Mike GE 100K Sean GE 40K Carol GE 70K Sean GE 40K Lucy GE 60K Carol GE 70K Mike GE 100K Matt GE 40K Mike GE 100K Matt GE 40K Carol GE 70K Matt GE 40K Lucy GE 60K
Where sal<works2.sal Project on ename: Joe Lucy Sean Carol Matt
Project Works on ename: Joe Lucy Sean Carol Mike Matt Substract from first projection the second one: Mike Find all employees that live in the same city as their company
Project on ename: Matt
Matt GE 40K Cleveland Main Cleveland
Works Company Employee Cname=company.cname &ename=employee.ename & city=works.city Relational Algebra on Bags A bag is like a set but it allows elements to be repeated in a set. Example: {1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 5, 2} is a bag. Difference between a bag and a list is that order is not important in a bag. Example: {1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 5, 2} and {1,1,2,3,2,2,5} is the same bag
Need for Bags SQL allows relations with repeated tuples. Thus SQL is not a relational algebra but rather bag algebra In SQL one need to specifically ask to remove duplicates, otherwise replicated tuples will not be eliminated Operation projection is more efficient on bags than on sets
Operations on Bags Select applies to each tuple and no duplicates are eliminated Project also applies to each tuple and duplicates are not eliminated. Example
A B C 1 2 3 1 2 5 2 3 7
Projection on A, B A B 1 2 1 2 2 3 Other Bag Operations An element in the union appears the number of times it appears in both bags Example: {1, 2, 3, 1} UNION {1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1} = {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4} An element appears in the intersection of two bags is the minimum of the number of times it appears in either. Example (cont): {1, 2, 3, 1} INTERSECTION {1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1} = {1, 1, 2, 3} An element appears in the difference of two bags A and B as it appears in A minus the number of times it appears in B but never less that 0 times
Bag Laws Not all laws for set operations are valid for bags: Commutative law for union does hold for bags: R UNION S = S UNION R However S union S = S for sets and it is not equal to S if S is a bag