HOSPITAL-ACQUIRED

INFECTIONS

DR. MOHIT BHATIA

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY
AIIMS, RISHIKESH
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Introduction to HAIs
Factors responsible for HAIs
Causative organisms
Modes of transmission
Different types of HAIs
Prevention of HAIs
Surveillance of HAIs
Bundle care approach
 DEFINITION
( HOSPITAL ACQUIRED INFECTIONS= NOSOCOMIAL
INFECTIONS= HEALTHCARE ASSOCIATED INFECTIONS )

CDC defines HAI as a localized or systemic condition resulting from

an adverse reaction to the presence of an infectious agent(s) or its
toxin(s) without any evidence of its being present or in incubation
at the time of admission.

 An infection is attributed as HAI if date of event occurs on or after 3rd calendar day (CL) of admission where
day of admission is counted as CL 1.
DEFINITION CONT.

 It also includes
 infections appearing after discharge and
 occupational infections among healthcare workers.
 It does not include
 colonization or
 inflammation resulting from tissue response to injury or non‑infectious agents.
FACTORS AFFECTING HAI

• Immune status
• Hospital environment
• Hospital organisms
• Diagnostic or therapeutic interventions
• Transfusion
• Poor hospital administration
 SOURCES OF HAI

• Endogenous source- patient’s own flora

• Exogenous source
o Environmental sources
o Health care workers
o Other patients
MICROORGANISMS IMPLICATED IN HAI

• The ESKAPE pathogens-

o Enterococcus faecium
o Staphylococcus aureus
o Klebsiella pneumoniae
o Acinetobacter baumannii
o Pseudomonas aeruginosa
o Enterobacter species and Escherichia coli
BLOOD BORNE INFECTIONS (BBI)

• HIV
• Hepatitis B
• Hepatitis C viruses

 Transmitted by
o Blood Transfusion
o Needle /Other Sharp Injury /Splash
 MODES OF TRANSMISSION OF HOSPITAL-ACQUIRED PATHOGENS

Route Description
Contact transmission  
Direct contact Skin to skin contact , MC
  Indirect contact Contaminated inanimate objects such as-
 Dressings, or gloves, instruments (e.g. stethoscope)
 Parenteral transmission through- NSI, splashes, saline flush, syringes,
vials etc
 MODES OF TRANSMISSION OF HOSPITAL-ACQUIRED PATHOGENS.

Route Description
Inhalational mode  
  Droplet Droplets of >5 µm size can travel for shorter distance (<3 feet).
transmission  Generated while coughing, sneezing, and talking
 Propelled for a short distance through the air and deposited on the
host's body.
 E.g -bacterial meningitis, diphtheria, respiratory syncytial virus, etc.
  Airborne Airborne droplet nuclei (≤ 5 µm  size) or dust particles
transmission Remain suspended in the air for long time and can travel longer distance.
 This is more efficient mode than droplet transmission.
 E.g. Legionella, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, measles and
varicella viruses.
 MODES OF TRANSMISSION OF HOSPITAL-ACQUIRED PATHOGENS

Route Description
Vector • Via vectors such as mosquitoes, flies, etc. carrying the
microorganisms
• Rare mode

Common vehicle such as food, water, medications, devices, and equipment.

 MAJOR TYPES OF HAIS

• Catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI)

• Central line-associated blood stream infection (CLABSI)
• Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP)
• Surgical site infection (SSI).
 CATHETER-ASSOCIATED URINARY TRACT INFECTION (CAUTI)

Risk factors

• Advanced age
• Female gender
• Severe underlying disease
• Placement of a urinary catheter for > 2 days.
 CAUTI (CONT..)

Organisms

• Gram negative rods -majority of hospital acquired UTIs

• E.coli is the MC organism implicated.
• Gram-positive bacteria –may also cause UTI
• S.aureus, enterococci - occasionally cause CAUTI.
 CENTRAL LINE ASSOCIATED BLOOD STREAM
INFECTION
(CLABSI)

• Organisms

o CoNS, and S.aureus – Most common

o Followed by gram-negative rods and Candida.

 CLABSI (CONT..)
Risk factors

• Patient related:

o Age (<1 year and >60 years)

o Malnutrition

o Low immunity

o Severe underlying disease

o Loss of skin integrity (burn or bed sore)

o Prolonged stay in ICUs

• Device related: presence of central line : multi-lumen, non-tunnelled

• HCW related: poor IC practices such as HH.

 VENTILATOR ASSOCIATED PNEUMONIA

Risk factors for VAP

• Device related: endotracheal intubation

• Patient related:

• Prolonged ICU stay leading to colonization of hospital MDROs

• Aspiration of oropharyngeal flora due to various reasons such as semiconscious state, supine position
etc

• HCW related: poor IC practices such as HH

 VAP (CONT..)

Organisms:
• Gram-negative rods such as Acinetobacter species and Pseudomonas
• Other gram-negative
• Gram positive bacteria
 SURGICAL SITE INFECTIONS (SSI)

Definition:
• Develop at the surgical site within 30 days of surgery

• Within 90 days if prosthetic material is implanted at surgery, breast, cardiac, CABG,

craniotomy, spinal fusion, open reduction of fracture, pacemaker, herniorrhaphy,
ventricular shunt and peripheral vascular bypass surgeries respectively

• Under reported because 50% of SSIs develop after the discharge.

 SURGICAL SITE INFECTION (SSI)
Type of SSIs
SSIs are classified based on level where infection developed.
 Superficial SSI- develops at the level of superficial incisional site (skin and
subcutaneous level) within 30 days regardless of type of surgery.
 Deep SSI- develops at the level of deep incisional site (muscle and fascial level)
within 30 days for all surgeries except breast, cardiac, CABG, craniotomy, spinal
fusion, open reduction of fracture, pacemaker, herniorrhaphy, ventricular shunt,
peripheral vascular bypass surgery, implant surgeries ( 90 days)
 Organ space SSI- develops at the level of organ space site within 30 days for all
surgeries except implant & other special surgeries mentioned above (90 days).
 SSI (CONT..)

Organisms
Surgical site wounds are classified as clean, clean-contaminated, contaminated or dirty.

• For clean wound- The skin flora (MC- S.aureus.)

• For other types- endogenous flora (anaerobes and GNB) in GI Sx.
 SSI (CONT)

• Risk factors for nosocomial wound infection include:

o Advanced age, obesity, malnutrition, diabetes
o Infection at a remote site that spread through blood stream
o Preoperative shaving of the site
o Inappropriate timing of prophylactic antimicrobial agent.

• Note: The antimicrobial prophylaxis is usually given to the patient to prevent the seeding of organisms on the
surgical site. It is given 1 hour prior to the incision, usually along with the induction of anesthesia.
 PREVENTION OF HAI

• The preventive measures for HAIs can be broadly categorized into

o Standard precautions
o Transmission-based or specific precautions.
STANDARD PRECAUTIONS

• Set of work practices used to minimize transmission of HAIs.

• Measures to be used when providing care to/handling –
o All individuals
o All specimens (blood or body fluids)
o All needles and sharps
 COMPONENTS OF STANDARD PRECAUTIONS

• Hand hygiene
• Personal protective equipment
• Biomedical waste including sharp handling
• Spillage cleaning
• Disinfection
• Respiratory hygiene and cough etiquette
 HAND HYGIENE

• Hands are the main source of transmission of infections during

healthcare.

• Hand hygiene is therefore the most important measure to

avoid the transmission of harmful microbes and prevent
healthcare-associated infections.
 TYPES OF HAND HYGIENE METHODS- HAND RUB

• Alcohol based (70–80% ethyl alcohol) and chlorhexidine (2–4%) based hand rubs are
available.
• Duration - 20–30 seconds.
• Advantage: After a period of contact, it gets evaporated of its own hence drying of hands is
not required separately
• Indications:
o Indicated during routine rounds in the wards or ICUs
o In all the moments or situations requiring hand hygiene, except when the hands are
visibly dirty or soiled, when it will be ineffective.
 TYPES OF HAND HYGIENE METHODS- HAND WASH

• Antimicrobial soaps (liquid, gel or bars) are available.

• If facilities are not available, then even ordinary soap and water can also be used.
• Duration - 40–60 seconds.
• Indications:
o When the hands are visibly soiled with blood, excreta, pus, etc.
o Before and after eating
o After going to toilet
o Before and after shift of the duty.
FIVE MOMENTS FOR HAND
HYGIENE
STEPS OF HAND RUBBING AND HAND WASHING
(WHO)
 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)

• Used to protect the skin and mucous membranes of HCWs

from exposure to blood and/or body fluids

• From the HCW’s hands to the patient during sterile and

invasive procedures.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)
Gloves (non-sterile) Used when there is a risk of infection to HCWs (e.g. while touching
blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions of patients, items/equipment
or environment).

Gloves (sterile) Used when there is a risk of infection to HCWs as well as to the patients
(during surgeries /invasive procedures).

Plastic apron Used during surgeries

Gown Used during surgeries and when soiling is likely to be expected.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)
Surgical mask Used during surgeries and while handling patients on droplet
precautions

N95 mask Used while handling patients on airborne precaution (tuberculosis).

Cap, face shield, goggles Used when spillage of blood is suspected, e.g. during major cardiac
surgeries etc.

Surgical shoes Used mainly in ICUs and operation theatres to protect HCWs and
environment from transmission of organisms.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)

Personal protective equipment (PPE):

A. Gloves;
B. Plastic apron;
C. Gown;
D. Surgical mask;
E. N95 mask;
F. Cap;
G. Face shield;
H. Goggles;
I. Surgical shoes
 SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE PPE

• Level of risk associated with contamination of skin, mucous

membranes, and clothing by blood and body fluids during a
specific patient care activity or intervention
• Route of transmission of suspected organisms— contact, droplet
and inhalation
 DONNING AND DOFFING

Donning (wearing) Doffing (removing)

Gown Gloves

Goggles or face
Mask or respirator shield

Goggles or face Gown

shield

Gloves Mask or respirator

 SPILL MANAGEMENT FOR BLOOD AND BODY FLUIDS

• Spill management of blood and body fluids: Bring the spill kit to the site of spillage, wear appropriate PPE
(gloves and gown); put no entry sign board near the spill area.
• If spillage is small (<10 mL):
o Wipe up spill immediately with absorbent material and discard into appropriate bin
o Wipe the area with 10% sodium hypochlorite and allow to dry
o Remove PPE and perform hand hygiene
• If spillage is large (>10 mL):
o Place disposable paper towels over spill to absorb the spillage
o Pour 10% sodium hypochlorite on top of absorbent paper towels and leave for 15 minutes.
o Remove the absorbent papers; put fresh disposable paper towels to clean the area and then discard
these into appropriate waste bin.
 RESPIRATORY HYGIENE AND COUGH ETIQUETTE

• Should be followed by anyone with signs and symptoms of a respiratory infection,

regardless of the cause.
o Cover the nose/mouth with single-use tissue paper when coughing, sneezing, wiping
and blowing noses
o If no tissues are available, cough or sneeze into the inner elbow rather than the hand
o Follow hand hygiene after contact with respiratory secretions and contaminated
objects/materials
o Keep contaminated hands away from the mucous membranes of the eyes and nose
 RESPIRATORY HYGIENE AND COUGH ETIQUETTE

• In high-risk areas of airborne transmission such as pulmonary

medicine OPD:
o Give mask to the patients with cough and make separate
queue away from the general queue
o Sputum collection should be done in an open space or in a
well- ventilated room
 TRANSMISSION-BASED PRECAUTIONS
(SPECIFIC PRECAUTIONS)

1.Contact Precautions

2. Droplet Precautions

3. Airborne Precautions
 SPECIFIC PRECAUTIONS

Type Indication Isolation Gloves Gown Mask Eye Handling of Visitors

  protection equipment
Contact MDROs, C.difficile Essential Essential Essential Surgical mask- As required** Single use or Same
Diarrheal pathogens Required if reprocess precautions
Highly contagious skin infectious agent before reuse on as for staff
infections is also next patient
transmitted by
droplet
 SPECIFIC PRECAUTIONS

Type Indication Isolation Gloves Gown Mask Eye Handling of Visitors

  protection equipment
Droplet Respiratory syncytial Essential As If soiling Surgical mask is As required** Same as Restrict
virus, Mycoplasma required* likely essential contact visitor
Parainfluenza numbers
Pertussis and
Plague, precautions
Meningococcus same as for
staff
 SPECIFIC PRECAUTIONS

Type Indication Isolation Gloves Gown Mask Eye Handling of Visitors

  protection equipment
Airborne Pulmonary TB, Essential As If soiling N95 respirator As required** Same as Restrict
Chicken pox (negative required* likely essential contact visitor
Measles pressure) numbers
SARS and
precautions
same as for
staff
HOSPITAL INFECTION CONTROL
COMMITTEE Other Committee members
Core Committee members
1. Chairperson: MS • HODs of all clinical departments
• Biomedical waste management  in-charge
2. Member Secretary: HOD, Dept. of
Microbiology • ART Clinical In Charge
• CSSD in-charge
3. Hospital Infection Control Officer
• Linen and Laundry in-charge
4. Nursing Superintendent
• Central store in-charge
5. Infection Control Nurses • Engineer representative
6. Infection Control Lab technician • Pharmacy in-charge
7. Data entry operators • Sanitary Superintendent
• Kitchen in-charge
 HICC ACTIVITIES
1. Education
2. HAI Surveillance
3. Staff Health Care (Needle stick injury & Hepatitis B vaccination)
4. Hand Hygiene Audit
5. Bundle care audit
6. Antimicrobial Stewardship Programme
7. Environmental Surveillance (water, air , surface and milk)
8. Staff Surveillance for MRSA and other MDROs
9. AMR Surveillance
10. Formulating Disinfectant policy

HICC Meeting, once monthly

 HAI SURVEILLANCE

• HAI Surveillance - system that monitors the HAIs in a hospital.

• Provides endemic/baseline HAI rate

• Comparing HAI rates within and between hospitals.

• Identifies the problem area.

• Timely feedback to the clinicians.

 TARGETED SURVEILLANCE

• National healthcare safety network (NHSN) division of CDC (center for disease control and
prevention) provides guideline for the surveillance diagnosis of HAIs
 HOSPITAL-ACQUIRED INFECTION SURVEILLANCE

HAIs for which surveillance is conducted:

• Catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI)
• Central line-associated blood stream infection (CLABSI)
• Ventilator-associated event (VAE)
• Surgical site infection (SSI).

• ICNs under the supervision of the officer in-charge of HICC conduct HAI surveillance.

• HAI surveillance diagnostic criteria: very objective

METHOD OF CONDUCTING HAI SURVEILLANCE

Data collection

Data analysis

Data interpretation

Data
dissemination
 CA-UTI
Device Presence of a urinary catheter for > 2 calendar days.
criteria

Clinical Presence of any one symptom of UTI such as fever, suprapubic

criteria tenderness, urgency, frequency or dysuria.

Culture Isolation of significant count (≥ 105/mL) of a UTI pathogen from

criteria urine.
 CLABSI

Age Blood culture criteria Clinical criteria • LCBI- laboratory confirmed

Organism No. of cultures blood stream infection
isolated positives • 1LCBI pathogen- e.g.
common hospital acquired
LCBI-1 Any age LCBI pathogen1 1 Symptoms not pathogens
required • 2LCBI commensal- e.g.
Coagulase negative
LCBI-2 >1 year LCBI commensal2 2 Any one staphylococci 3LCBI-2
symptom3 symptoms- fever, chills,
LCBI-3 <1 year LCBI commensal 2 Any one hypotension
symptom4 • 4LCBI-3 symptoms- fever,
hypothermia, bradycardia,
Device criteria= catheter present for > two calendar days apnoea
LCBI plus catheter criteria met = called as CLABSI
LCBI without catheter criteria met= called as non-CLABSI
 VAE (VENTILATOR ASSOCIATED
EVENTS)
Stage-1: VAC (ventilator associated condition)
Device criteria Presence of a mechanical ventilator at least for two calendar 2 days.

Oxygenation  Baseline period during which the daily minimum FiO2 (fraction of
criteria inspired oxygen) and PEEP (positive end-expiratory pressure) values are
stable or decreasing for 2 days followed by
 Period of worsening of oxygenation- increased FiO2 (by ≥ 20%) or PEEP
(≥ 3 cm water) for at least 2 days
 VAE (VENTILATOR ASSOCIATED
EVENTS)
Stage-2: IVAC (infection related ventilator associated complications)
Clinical criteria Any one out of four-
Fever or hypothermia
Leucocytosis or leukopenia
Antibiotic criteria New antimicrobial agent started and continued for ≥ 4 days
 VAE (VENTILATOR ASSOCIATED
EVENTS)

Stage-3: PVAP (Possible ventilator associated pneumonia)

Culture criteria Isolation of significant count of a pneumonia pathogen from

respiratory specimens such as tracheal aspirate, bronchoalveolar
lavage etc.
 SURGICAL SITE INFECTION (SSI) CONTD..

One among the following must be met:

Clinical (i) Presence of purulent pus from the corresponding level of surgical site or
criteria (ii)Presence of local signs of infections (pain/tenderness, swelling,
erythema, heat etc).

Culture Positive culture from the discharge collected at the corresponding level of
criteria surgical site.
Other (i)For superficial SSI- Surgeon’s diagnosis is taken as diagnostic criteria
evidence (ii)For deep or organ space SSI- histopathological, imaging or gross
anatomical evidence of abscess should be present.
FORMULAE OF HAI INFECTION RATES

HAI infection rates Formulae

VAE Rate No. of VAE cases/ total no. of ventilator days X

1000
CLABSI Rate No. of CLABSI cases/ total no. of central line days
X 1000
CA-UTI Rate No. of CA-UTI cases/ total no. of catheter days X
1000
SSI Rate No. of SSI/ No. of surgeries done X 100
 PREVENTION OF DEVICE-ASSOCIATED
INFECTIONS (DAIS)
• Bundle care approach
o Bundle care comprises of 3 to 5 evidence-based elements with strong clinician
agreement.
o Each of the component must be followed during the insertion or maintenance of the
device
o Compliance to the bundle care is calculated as all or-none way, i.e. failure of compliance
to any of the component leads to non-compliance to the whole bundle
 BUNDLE CARE FOR URINARY CATHETER
Insertion bundle Maintenance bundle
1. Inserted only when appropriate 1. Daily catheter care
indication is present
2. Sterile items 2. Properly secured
3. Non-touch technique 3. Drainage bag must be above the floor and
below the bladder level.
4. Closed drainage system 4. Closed drainage system
5. Appropriate size catheter 5. Hand hygiene and change of gloves
6. Secured after placement between patients; separate jug for each bag,
  alcohol swabs for outlet – while emptying
urine
6. Daily assessment of readiness of removal
 BUNDLE CARE FOR CENTRAL LINE
Insertion bundle Maintenance bundle
1.Hand hygiene 1.Daily aseptic CL care during handling
2. Sterile PPE  Hand hygiene
 Alcohol hub decontamination
3. Site of insertion- 2.Daily documentation of local sign of infection
Subclavian preferred, avoid femoral
4. Chlorhexidine skin preparation 3.Change of dressing with 2% Chlorhexidine

5. Skin must be completely dry after use of 4.Daily assessment of readiness of removal
antiseptics
6.Use semi permeable dressing  
7.Hand wash after procedure  
8.Document data and time of insertion  
 Maintenance bundle for ventilator care

Maintenance bundle

• Adherence to hand hygiene

• Elevation of the head of the bed to 30-450
• Daily oral care with chlorhexidine 2% solution
• Need of PUD (peptic ulcer disease) prophylaxis to be assessed daily; if needed
only sucralfate should be used.

• DVT (deep vein thrombosis) prophylaxis should be provided if needed.

• Daily assessment of readiness to removal of MV
 PREVENTION OF SSI
Preoperative measures

1. Preoperative bathing

2. For MRSA nasal carriers: Decolonization with mupirocin ointment

3.Hair removal: strongly discouraged, If needed should be removed only with a

clipper.
4. Pre-operative oral antibiotics combined with mechanical bowel preparation
(MBP) - elective colorectal surgery.
 PREVENTION OF SSI
Intra-operative measures
1.Surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis (SAP) must be provided for all except clean surgeries.
 Administered within 60-120 minutes before incision
 Choice- depends upon local antibiotic policy. Cefazolin or cefuroxime are the usual agent of choice.
 Frequency- SAP is usually given as single dose. Repeat dose may be required only for: duration >4 hr,
cardiac surgeries, drugs with lower half-lives, extensive blood loss during surgery

2. Surgical hand disinfection

3. Surgical site preparation should be performed with alcohol-based antiseptic solutions based on CHG.
4. Perioperative maintenance of oxygenation, temperature, blood glucose level, circulating volume and
nutritional support during surgery and immediate 4-6hr postoperative period.
 PREVENTION OF SSI

Post -operative measures

1. Daily wound dressing

2. OT disinfection - with a high level disinfectant, in between cases and after the last case
(terminal disinfection).
3. Periodic monitoring the air quality of OT for various parameters such as no. of air
exchanges, temperature, humidity, pressure and microbial contamination.
4. SAP prolongation is not recommended.