Managing ecosystems &

biodiversity
CHAPTER 04
 conditions called biomes.

Biomes (large scale ecosystems)

Tundra

 Abiotic Factors: Usually in Eastern US, Canada, Europe. Experiences all four
seasons despite being very brief. 15­20 centimeters of rain as an average per year.
The average temperature is 10 degrees warmer. Often compared to a desert
because of the little biodiversity and varying temperatures.
 Biotic Factors: Low amounts of biomass due to the permafrost. Nutrients never
recycle. Some animals that live in this biome are bees, killer whale, and a red fox.
Some plants that grow in this area are caribou moss and lichen.
 Temperate Deciduous Forest

 Abiotic Factors: Located usually in the Eastern US, Canada, Europe and experiences all
four seasons. There are approximately 77­153 cm of rain per year. The temperature ranges
per season which allows there to be constant plant litter and decomposition on the ground.
There is constant moisture but it is enough to allow greenery rather than a humid climate.
Rich soil which leads to large amounts of foliage as well as animal life.
 Biotic Factors: Deciduous trees drop their leave and go into dormancy into the winter. The
trees dropping their leaves allows rodents to survive using the shed leaves as shelter or
source of nutrition. Types of plants that live in this biome are lichen, moss, ferns, and
hardwood trees like oak. If these plants were not able to shed some of their foliage to
conserve water they would not be able to survive the cold winter. Animals that live in this
bios[here are hawks, white ­tailed deer, and raccoons. These animals have the ability to
camouflage one way or another to their surrounding environment, without it they would not
survive being pred on.
 Grasslands/Savannah

 Abiotic Factors: The tropical savannah is a hot, seasonally dry grassland that have an extended dry and wet season. The
average annual temperature of this biome is 25 degrees Celsius, while in the dry season it is 20­25 degrees Celsius, and in
the wet season it s 25­30 degrees Celsius. The average amount of precipitation is 38­63 cm. The weather ranges from cool
and dry to wet and warm in their respective seasons. In the summer, the soil is very fertile due to grazing of the large
herbivores but during the dry season, the soil is infertile which causes the small grasses and shrubs to die off. There is a
large abundance of water during the wet season, but scarce during the dry season.
 Biotic Factors: The Biotic Factors in this biome would include the plants and animals the are needed to keep the
Savannah alive. Most of the animals on the savanna have long legs or wings to be able to go on long migrations. Some
animals that inhabit the biome are the Wild dog, hyena, lion, cheetah and caracal, all preying on smaller animals to
survive. Some plants that inhabit the environment would be Star grass, Umbrella Thorn Acacia, and Bermuda Grass,
which provides food for the various herbivores that can help the soil became fertile. Plants in the savanna are highly
specialized to grow in the the environment due to long periods of drought and they have long taproots that can reach the
deep water table and thick bark to resist fires and store water.
 Deserts

 Abiotic Factors: Hot area of land with very little moisture in the air. The dessert has an average rainfall of
25.2 centimeters a year. Average temperature during the day is about 30 degrees Celsius and at night it is ­4
degrees celsius. Natural deserts occur where moisture is slim with the exceptions such as the Namib
Desert in Africa where coastal fog deserts occur because of cold oceanic currents. Fog­deserts are types of
deserts where fog drip supplies the majority of moisture needed by animal and plant life.
 Biotic Factors: The biodiversity of deserts is much lower than that of other biomes, as the harsh conditions
only allow for the most adaptable plants and animals to survive. Producers of this biome are cacti,
turpentine bushes, prickly pears. Primary and secondary consumers are rabbits, and then rattlesnakes.
Plant in this biome have similar characteristics of being able to retain water for long dry periods and most
animals only come out after the hot sun has set to prey.
 Monsoon

 Abiotic Factors: The temperature, humidity, sunlight, soil, climate and precipitation. Temperatures are
high all year round and the average temperature during the rainy season is 27.05 degrees Celsius, while
monthly it is around 18 degrees Celsius. The monsoon rainforest usually has the highest temperatures
just before the rainy season. This biome experiences a wet and dry season where in the dry season less
than 60 mm of rainfall is recorded while in the wet season, up to 1000 mm of rainfall is recorded.
 Biotic Factors: The plants and animals that inhabit the Monsoon rainforest are necessary for the structure
and thriving of this biome. Some animals include, monkeys, deer, parrots, and large cats like mountain
lions. Some plants include deciduous shrubs, bromeliads, orchids, deciduous trees which shed their
leaves to conserve the water they lose when the leaves fall off and mushrooms which break down plant
matter and return it to the soil.
 Tropical Rain Forest

 Abiotic Factors: water, warm climate, sunlight, humidity, poor soil composition due to millions of years of rain and
weathering have washed out all the nutrients., and precipitation. There is an average of at least 60mm to 2000 mm
of rainfall per year. The average temperature is 24 degrees Celsius. Typically hot and wet all year round with rainfall
being both heavy and frequent. No dry season, it rains all year. The layers of the Canopy, understory, forest floor
(shrub area), and then the soil and nutrient cycling.
 Biotic Factors: The plants and animals that inhabit the Tropical rainforest are necessary for the structure and
thriving of this biome. Plants like bamboo and tropical fruit trees provide oxygen for the animals living in the
tropical rainforest. Fruit ­eating animals, like birds and bats, spread seeds and are also pollinators. Insects, fungi and
bacteria break down the plant matter and return nutrients to the soil. Predators like jaguars and snakes feed on
smaller animals.
GPP vs NPP

 Gross primary production (GPP) is the total rate at which material is produced and net primary
production (NPP) is the rate at which material is accumulated in excess of respiration. In other
words, NPP is GPP minus respiration. 
 Net primary productivity (NPP) is the rate at which all plants in an ecosystem
produce net useful chemical energy. While gross primary productivity (GPP) is the rate at
which primary producers save and collect biomass for energy conservation. NPP is
the difference between GPP and cellular respiration.
Succession

 Succession i​s the observed changes in an ecological community over time. It can be
observed through three types; primary (initiated change in an area that has had no
ecological community to form a community), secondary (a disastrous change in a
community), and seasonal (a changed caused by cyclical occurrences)
 Primary
Succession

Balsam fir,
Jack pine, paper birch, and
black spruce, white spruce
Small herbs Heath mat and aspen forest community
Lichens and and shrubs
Exposed mosses
rocks

Time

Fig. 5-16, p. 116

Secondary
Succession

Mature oak and hickory

Young pine forest forest
Shrubs and with developing
Perennial small pine understory of oak and
Annual weeds and seedlings hickory trees
weeds grasses

Time

Fig. 5-17, p. 117

 Biomass i​s the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or e​cosystem​at a given time (plants,
animals, microorganisms) and is the total mass of organisms at a trophic level.
 Biodiversity i​s the variety of living things on the planet; ecosystems with high biodiversity are thriving with
life and an assortment of plant and animal species.
 Trophic levels, food chains and webs: A trophic level is the position an animal is in the food chain and shows
the flow of energy from each. (producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers) Food
chains show a​single pathway by which energy and matter flow through an ecosystem, while food webs show
multiple pathways through which energy and matter flow through an ecosystem.
 Habitats and niches: A habitat is a natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or other organism. A​
niche is the place in an ecosystem that an species fits and adapts to best/ role of an organism within a
ecosystem
 Tropical Rainforest

 There is much biomass, but there is little litter

since the plant life is annual. The foliage on the
ground slightly prevents the little litter from
reaching the soil to provide nutrients, but there
is still a lot of nutrient flow.
 Tundra

 There is very little biomass to

provide soil, and once the
litter is there almost none of
it goes into the soil because
of the presence of
permafrost.
 Desert

 There is very
little biomass
so there is not
much litter,
so the
 soil holds
much of
whatever is
available.
 Temperate Deciduous Forest

 There is a good amount of

biomass that provides a
moderate amount to the litter
which is then transferred to the
soil.
 two contrasting biomes

 Tropical rain forests and deserts have some similarities, but are generally very different. Rain forests
have poor soil that is low in nutrients because the rain beats down on it, but deserts only have sand which
contains no nutrients. Rain forests and deserts are both warm, but deserts are on average hotter.
Rainforests get 60 mm of average precipitation while deserts get 25 cm of precipitation a year.
Rainforests have very high biomass and biodiversity because it supports 15 million different species of
plants and animals, while deserts have very low biomass and biodiversity because the harsh environment
is hostile to plants and animals. Rainforests have a net primary product of 9000 kilocalories/ square
meter/ year, while deserts have less than 200 kilocalories/ square meter/ year.
 Flow of energy through ecosystems

 The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth.

 Only a small fraction of the total energy which reaches the earth is captured by green plants.
 This is because most of the energy is reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere. Much of the energy which does
penetrate the atmosphere does not hit plants. Some of the energy which is intercepted by plants passes straight
through leaves without hitting chloroplasts or is reflected from plants or is of a wavelength which does not excite
pigment molecules
 As a result of these losses, less than 1% of the total available energy is captured in photosynthesis.
 The small amount of solar energy which is captured by green plants is absorbed by the
green pigment chlorophyll.
 During the process of photosynthesis, this solar energy is transformed into chemical
energy in the form of sugars using carbon dioxide and water. This chemical energy is
then available to animals, bacteria and fungi.
 The light energy which is captured by chlorophyll molecules is used to generate ATP.
However, the plant uses most of this ATP in maintaining its own metabolism and since
all metabolic reactions are inefficient, much energy is lost as heat.
 Gross primary production (GPP) is the total amount of energy or organic matter
captured or fixed by green plants, but respiratory losses (in the form of heat) mean that
only net primary production (NPP) is available as the source of energy for animals
which consume the plants (herbivores). In other words, NPP = GPP - R.
 Green plants therefore represent trophic level 1 and are known as primary
producers.
 These are then eaten by primary consumers which use the complex organic
molecules which make up the body of the plant as their energy source.
 Organisms which feed on primary consumers are termed secondary consumers and
those that feed on secondary consumers are termed tertiary consumers. This is
shown diagrammatically in a food chain
 organisms do not usually feed on just one type of organism, so food webs -
interconnected food chains - are more realistic.
Only about 1-10% of the total energy contained in plants is obtained by primary
consumers. This is because:
 Plants use most of the ATP they produce maintaining their own metabolism.
 Some parts of the plant may be indigestible and the primary consumer therefore
egests, in the form of faeces, non-utilisable energy.
 Any consumer does not eat all of any particular plant - roots for example may be left
in the ground and these represent lost energy
 Similarly, these losses are repeated at every successive trophic level and it is this
loss of energy at each stage which results in declining numbers and biomass of
organisms at each trophic level.
 In other words, it is the loss of energy at each stage which gives rise to pyramids
of numbers and pyramids of biomass.
 All consumers are, however, entirely dependent on the green plants for their
source of energy. Primary consumers are directly dependent and secondary and
tertiary consumers are indirectly dependent on this initial capture of light
energy.
 The energy contained in dead organisms or in faeces is utilised by organisms
which make up a saprophytic food chain.
Implications of energy flow

 Loss of energy at each stage of a food chain - through respiration of the preceding
organism, through faeces and through not all of the preceding organism being eaten, has
important implications for humans in terms of food production systems. Quite simply, the
longer the food chain, the more energy will be lost.
Ecological pyramids

1.Pyramid of energy
2.Pyramid of biomass (dry weight of an organism)
3.Pyramid of numbers
 Pyramids of energy are normally upright, but
other pyramids can be inverted or take other
shapes.
Native species and Invasive species

 A native species is one that is found in a certain ecosystem due to natural processes,
such as natural distribution and evolution. ... No human intervention brought a native
species to the area or influenced its spread to that area. Native species are also called
indigenous species.

 Invasive specie is an introduced / non-native specie which becomes established (becomes

a naturalized specie). It spreads quickly and outcompetes the native specie ; thereby
usually eliminating the native specie and resulting in changing the biodiversity.
 impacts of invasive species on biodiversity

How do invasive species affect the biodiversity?

Invasive alien species have devastating impacts on native biota, causing

decline or even extinctions of native species, and negatively affecting
ecosystems. ... They reproduce rapidly, out-compete native species for
food, water and space, and are one of the main causes of global
biodiversity loss.

Possible benefit: Invasive plants can also serve as a source of pollen and nectar for a variety of insect
species
 Invasive species cause harm to wildlife in many ways. ... The direct threats of invasive
species include preying on native species, outcompeting native species for food or other
resources, causing or carrying disease, and preventing native species from reproducing or
killing a native species' young.

 Without their natural predators, invasive species can spread aggressively, edging out
native species, devastating ecosystems, and costing a lot of money.
benefits of conserving biodiversity

 resources of potential medicines

 food, wood, fibres, oils and fuels
 diversity in genes
 ecological services
 cultural and recreational value
Legislation and Protocols to conserve
biodiversity

 protection of species
 regulation of sustainable harvesting
 international trade in endangered species (CITES)
 International Whaling Commission (IWC)
 European Union Common Fisheries Policy (EU CFP)
 International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO)
 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List
Endangered Species Act 1973

 The purpose of the ESA is to protect and recover imperiled species and the ecosystems
upon which they depend. It is administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(Service) and the Commerce Department's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS).

 What is covered under the Endangered Species Act?

 The Endangered Species Act ("ESA") prohibits importing, exporting, taking,
possessing, selling, and transporting endangered and threatened species (with certain
exceptions). ESA also provides for the designation of critical habitat and prohibits the
destruction of that habitat.
Forest Act- sustainable harvesting

 The main importance of the forest conservation act of 1980 is to protect and preserve
the forests of the country and prevent deforestation which leads to land erosion and
degradation of the land.
 Why is sustainable harvesting important?
 The practice of harvesting is done in an environmentally sustainable way that takes
into account the plant's own survival and our ability to have access to the plant
species for years to come. To wipe out every plant seen would be very short-sighted and
could put the plant on the endangered or at-risk list.
international trade in endangered species
(CITES)

 CITES is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals. convention was
opened for signature in 1973 and CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975

 CITES protects these species from being excessively traded and exploited illegally and
unsustainably in the wild as their extinction would have irreversible ecological
consequences and negative economic and social effects
 This treaty regulates trade in endangered species of wildlife, plants and their
products. International trade in species listed by CITES is illegal unless authorized by
permit.
International Whaling Commission (IWC)

 The International Whaling Commission is an international body established under the

terms of the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling to "provide for
the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development
of the whaling industry

 What does the International Whaling Commission do?

 The International Whaling Commission was established under the 1946 International
Convention for the Regulation of Whaling to provide for the proper conservation of
whale stocks and orderly development of the whaling industry.
European Union Common Fisheries Policy
(EU CFP)

 The Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is the fisheries policy of the European Union (EU).
It sets quotas for which member states are allowed to catch each type of fish, as well
as encouraging the fishing industry by various market interventions. 

 The CFP aims to conserve fish stocks and reduce overfishing in order to

provide EU citizens with a long-term stable, secure and healthy food supply. 
International Tropical Timber Organisation
(ITTO)

 The International Tropical Timber Organization is an intergovernmental organization that

promotes conservation of tropical forest resources and their sustainable management, use
and trade.

 ITTO is an intergovernmental organization promoting the conservation and

sustainable management, use and trade of tropical forest resources. Its members
represent about 80% of the world's tropical forests and 90% of the global tropical timber
trade.
International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) Red List

 The International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species,
founded in 1964, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation
status of biological species. It uses a set of precise criteria to evaluate the extinction risk
of thousands of species and subspecies.
Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally
Endangered species (EDGE)

 Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) species are animal species

which have a high 'EDGE score', a metric combining endangered conservation status
with the genetic distinctiveness of the particular taxon.

 The EDGE of Existence programme highlights and protects some of the most unique
species on the planet, which are on the verge of extinction. These weird and wonderful
species are Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered.

 Examples of edge-loving species include brown-headed cowbirds, crows, raccoons and

opossums.
captive breeding for conserving biodiversity
 Captive breeding programs', broadly speaking, serve to use hatcheries to maintain
populations that are unable to survive in the wild for at least a portion of their lifecycle.
The proximate goal of these programs is to prevent imminent extinction of declining
species or populations.

 How does captive breeding help protect biodiversity?

 Captive-breeding programs breed endangered species in zoos and other facilities to
build a healthy population of the animals. Species-survival plans coordinate with zoos
around the world to bring species together for breeding that ensures genetic diversity.
habitat conservation and habitat creation as methods
of conserving biodiversity

 –  extracted reserves
 –  protection of habitats
 –  nature reserves
 –  protected areas
 –  conservation zones
 –  national parks
 National Parks help preserve habitats and wildlife as they are blocked off and protected by
the state and federal governments to not have any disturbance to the ecosystems. National
parks also offer education and awareness on issues such as climate change and illegal
logging for those who visit it. It also brings ecotourism along with the education as many
people visit national parks for their natural beauty and in turn educates those what the
purpose of preserving the ecosystem is. These protected areas give incentive to help restore
ecosystems as well as conserving any endangered location or species. Many National Parks
exist such as the Yellowstone National Park, the Grand Canyon, the Great Barrier Reef
Park, and they are all in existence to preserve, restore, and conserve ecosystems
Impacts of human activity on ecosystems

 impacts of human activity on tropical rainforests

 strategies for managing the impacts of human activity on tropical rainforests
 impacts of human activity on Antarctica
 strategies for managing the impacts of human activity on Antarctica
(Home Assignment )
impacts of human activity on tropical
rainforests

 deforestation leading to fragmentation

 fuel wood and timber collection
 agricultural expansion
 mineral extraction
 hydroelectric and reservoir projects
 climate change
 exploitation of individual species
strategies for managing the impacts of human
activity on tropical rainforests

•legislation and international agreement

•sustainable harvesting
•debt for nature swaps
•creation of protected areas
Managing Forests
Maintaining biological diversity through e.g.-

 Restricting or banning the usage of hazardous chemicals in

agriculture that may run off into aquatic habitats is an example of
pollution control.
 Changing agricultural systems - agricultural systems have been changed to be more
sustainable. Processes include crop rotation and water recharging to water deposits to
water crops.
 Forest conservation - the practice of planning and maintaining forest areas for the benefit
and sustainability of future generation
 (polyculture, managed grazing, selective logging, 3 Rs for mining, suitable substitute,
laws and regulations)
 Wildlife management protects many organisms from being poached and
killed, which can disrupt biodiversity through altering the food web. Many
sharks in South America and Southern Africa are killed for their fins, an
action that both drives the organism closer to extinction and disrupted the
aquatic biodiversity in the region. Legislation and preventive measures are
adequate forms of wildlife management (endangered species list, etc)
 Ecological islands - an area of land isolated by natural or artificial means from the surrounding land, where
a natural micro-habitat exists amidst a larger differing ecosystems

 The introduction of invasive organisms may environmentally deteriorate an

ecosystem. Strict legislation of introducing foreign species prevent this from
happening.
 Sustainable harvesting of wild plants and animal species
 Management plan to control harvesting of wild-grown medicinal plants
Assess the abundance of the plant/animal specie by measuring biodiversity
Sustainable forestry
Afforestation and Reforestation

 Afforestation- Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area

where there was no forest. Reforesting helps restore the ecosystems through planting the
trees through seeds or through artificial methods or roots, in order to restore the once
damaged forest. This methods helps with the restoration of the deforestation, which
damages the soil, the carbon dioxide levels, the oxygen levels, and generally disrupts the
ecosystem. However, this method helps out with the possibility of regeneration and then
proceed to conserve the ecosystem through laws and national parks. Once the afforestation
is successful and a forest has grown in place of where it was once destroyed, it is then
preserved by governments and laws to prevent more deforestation.
impacts of human activity on Antarctica

 climate change
 ozone depletion
 tourism
 overfishing
 future mineral and oil extraction
 scientific research
 Negative impacts of tourism:
 Tourists, along with research scientists, may unknowingly bring seeds and spores of plants from other
areas. There is the threat of pollution, eg oil spills from the cruise ships and other methods of transport.
 Threats
 Climate change. Climate change is the greatest long-term threat to the region. ...
 Increased fishing pressure and illegal fishing.
 Marine pollution. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been measured around Antarctica and detected
in wildlife. ...
 Invasive species.
strategies for managing the impacts of human
activity on Antarctica

 legislation and international agreement (the Antarctic Treaty 1959)

 protected areas
 fisheries regulation
 prohibited activities such as mineral extraction
 protection from non-native animals or plants
 waste management
 tourism control and permits for travel