STAINLESS STEEL

AND ELGILOY
G.SHEKAR SUBRAMANIAN
FIRST YEAR PG
Introduction
• Up until 1930’s the only orthodontic wires available were made of
Gold and their alloys.
• 1887 – Angle tried replacing noble metals with German silver
(Neusilber) a Brass (65% Cu, 14% Ni, 21% Zn).
• Gold alloys has Esthetically pleasing Excellent Corrosion resistance
Low proportional limit.
• The material that was to truly displace noble metals was stainless
steel.
• 1940’s :- With the substantial rise in the cost of gold; Austenitic
stainless steel began to displace gold.
• In early 1940 s Begg partner with Wilcock to make what they
envisioned to the ultimate in resilient orthodontic wires –
AUSTRALIAN STAINLESS STEELS.
• By 1960s gold was universally abandoned in favor of stainless steel.
• In 1960s :- Cobalt –Chromium alloys were introduced. Their physical
properties were very similar to stainless steel. However they had the
advantage that they could be supplied in softer and more formable
state that could be hardened by heat treatment 
• In 1984 : Mr. A.J Wilcock Jr. as per request of Dr. Mallenhauer of
Melbourne Australia resulted in production of Ultra high tensile
stainless steel round wires – The SUPREME GRADE.
Mechanical Properties
• Proportional limit • Hooke’s law
• Modulus of elasticity • Poisson’s ratio
• Strength • Yield strength
• Stiffness • Elastic limit
• Range • Toughness
• Springiness • Brittleness
• Resiliency • Ultimate yield strength
• Formability • Ductility and Malleability
• Percent Elongation • Bending moment
• Stress and Strain • Neutral Axis
• Flexibility • Bauschinger effect
Stress Strain graph
Stainless Steel
HISTORY
•  In mid 21st century ,stainless steel was applied to dentistry and
orthodontics
• The honors of developing the stainless steel alloy is shared by
Harry Brearley,F.M.Becket,Benno Strauss and Edward Maurer.
Stainless steel entered dentistry in 1919
• Stainless steel in orthodontics started in mid 1920’s .
•  First developed accidently by Harry Brearley in Sheffield, England.
• Stainless steel entered dentistry in 1919, introduced at Krupp’s
dental poly clinic in Germany by F. Haupt Meyer.
• Stainless steel today is used to make arch wires, ligature wires,
band material, brackets and buccal tubes 
• In 1930 Angle used it to make ligature wires.
• In the 1931 AAO Conference, Norris Taylor and George Paffenbarger
introduced steel as a substitute for gold.
• In 1933, the founder of Rocky Mountain Orthodontics, Archie
Brusse, suggested for the first time the clinical application of
stainless steel in orthodontics.
• By 1937 the value of stainless steel as an orthodontic wire had been
confirmed
• In Brazil, stainless steel began to be utilized in the manufacture of
orthodontic accessories in the late 1940
Composition
• Stainless steel is mainly composed of
1. Iron
2. Chromium
3. Nickel
4. Carbon
5. Silicon
6. Phosphorous
7. Sulphur
8. Manganese
9. Titanium
10. Niobium
11. Cobalt
Use and function of each component

Chromium:
• Increases tarnish and corrosion resistance .
• Increases hardness, tensile strength and proportional limit
Nickel
• Increases strength.
• Increases tarnish and corrosion resistance
• Stabilizes austenitic phase in room temperature
Carbon
• In pure form iron is soft and not useful for mechanical purposes. The
principal method of strengthening and converting it into steel is by
small amount of carbon
Carbon forms :
a) solid solution (austenite)
b)Carbide (ferrite) Cementite(Fe3C)
• Enhances corrosion resistance to certain acids.
• Decreases work hardening.
• Improves formability
Silicone
• Deoxidiser and scavenger
Phosphorous
• Improves machinability.
• Increases strength in austenitic stainless steel.
• Decreases weldability.
Sulphur
•  Helps in easy machining of wrought parts.
• Detrimental effect on corrosion and weldability
Manganese
• Increases strength, toughness and hardenability.
• Improves hot working properties.
Titanium
• It is added for carbide stabilization.
Niobium:
• Increases strength.
• Stabilizes carbon.
Cobalt:
• Increases hardness and tempering resistance.
Classification
• Stainless steel can be classified on the basis of crystal structure as
1. Ferritic
2. Austenitic
3. Martensitic
• The austenite-martensite phase transformation occurs by non-
diffusional, distortion rearrangement of atoms.
• The austenite-ferrite phase transformation occurs by diffusional
rearrangement of atoms.
Ferrite
• Stable between room temperature and 912*C.
• Carbon has very low solubility in this structure and reaches a maximum of
0.02% at 723*C.
• Interstices in bcc are very small.
• Good corrosion resistance at low cost provided increased strength is not
required.
• Not readily work hardenable.
• Formability is not as good as austenitic.
• This alloy is not hardenable by heat treatment.
• Little application in Dentistry.
Types
Type 430
• A 17% Chromium, low alloy Ferritic steel.
• Good corrosion resistant properties up to about 800°C.
SUPERFERRITIC STEEL
• Belongs to the category having chromium as much as 19% to 30%
• Nickel free and highly corrosion resistant.
• Corrosion resistance is further achieved by containing small
amount of aluminium and molybdenum and very little carbon.
Martensitic
• It is very hard, strong, brittle alloy but low corrosion
resistance.
• The high hardness of this structure allows the grinding of a
sharp edge, which will be retained in extended use.
• Martensite is a metastable phase that transforms to ferrite
and carbide when it is heated to elevated temperatures.
• This process is called tempering; it reduces hardness of alloy
but increases its toughness.
Types
Type 410
• A 13% Chromium, 0.15% Carbon alloy possessing good ductility and
corrosion resistance.
• Can be easily forged and machined.
• Exhibits good cold working properties.
Type 416
• Similar to Type 410 but has added Sulphur giving improved machinability.
Type 431
• A 17% Chromium, 2.5% Nickel, 0.15% max Carbon .
• Has superior corrosion resistance to types 410 & 416 due to the Nickel
Austenitic
• Above 723*C, a solid solution of carbon in an fcc iron
matrix called austenite is formed.
• Most corrosion resistant, of all types of stainless
steel.
• Used for orthodontic wires, endodontic instruments
and crowns in pediatric dentistry.
• The addition of nickel, manganese and nitrogen to
the iron-chromium- carbon composition stabilizes
the austenite phase on cooling.
• Austenite stainless steel is preferred to Ferritic stainless steel for dental
applications because it has the following properties:
1. Greater ductility and ability to undergo more cold work without
fracturing
2. Substantial strengthening during cold working (some transformation to
martensite)
3. Greater ease of welding
4. Ability to overcome sensitization
5. Less critical grain growth
6. Comparative ease of forming.
• When a plain carbon steel containing 0.8% carbon is cooled slowly
in the austenite phase to 723*C, it undergoes a solid state
eutectoid transformation to yield a microstructural constituent
called pearlite.
• This consists of alternating fine-scale lamellae of ferrite and iron
carbide (Fe3C), referred to as cementite, or simply, carbide

• The type 18-8 stainless steel, which contains 18% chromium and
8% nickel by weight, is the most commonly used alloy for
orthodontic stainless steel wires and bands.
Duplex
• Duplex = (50% ferrite+50% Austenite)
• Modern duplex alloys contains nitrogen which add strength and
corrosion resistance ,but also improves weldability
• Higher alloyed duplex materials are known as the ‘super duplex alloys’
• Lowered alloyed duplex is called ‘lean duplex’ ,offers higher strength
with corrosion resistance similar to standard austenitic grades
• As opposed to austenitic ones these steels are attracted to magnets.
• When improperly heat treated there is a tendency to form a brittle
phase with very poor corrosion resistance (sigma phase).
• Used for manufacturing one piece brackets
0% Ni 5% Ni >8% Ni
• PRECIPITATION HARDENABLE STEELS (PH STEEL)- it can be
hardened by heat treatment. It has got high tensile strength & thus
widely used in mini brackets & edge lock brackets.
• SOFT STAINLESS STEEL- it is the thoroughly annealed steel to
remove all the stresses incorporated during cold working. These
are commonly used as ligature wires
Types
•  AISI 302 is the basic type containing 18% Cr, 8% Ni and 0.15%
carbon.
• Type 304 has similar composition, chief difference being that the
carbon content is limited to 0.08%.
• Both 302 and 304 may be designated as 18/8 stainless steel and are
most commonly used in orthodontics in form of bands and wires.
• Type 316 L (0.03% max. carbon) -> employed for implants
• The 316 & 316 L types have been recently introduced and 316
differs in that it contains 2% more Nickel in addition to about 2%
Molybdenum, thus improving its corrosion resistance
 Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic

Alloying elements (wt. 18% Cr; >8% Ni, 0.1% 15 – 30% Cr; <1% Mo;
12 – 17% Cr; 0.1 -1% C
%) C <1% C

Excellent except Cl
Corrosion resistance Good Moderate
environment

Oxidation resistance Good Good Moderate

Strength Moderate Low-Moderate High

Toughness High Moderate Moderate

Formability Good Moderate Moderate

Weldability Good Poor-Moderate Poor-Moderate

Cost High Moderate Moderate

Grades
• Steel is softened by annealing and hardened by cold working. Fully
annealed stainless steel wires are soft and highly formable (“dead
soft”).
• Steel arch wire materials are offered in a range of partially
annealed states, in which yield strength is progressively enhanced
at the cost of formability.
• The steel wires with the most impressive yield strength (“super”
grades) are almost brittle and will break if bent sharply - costlier.
• The “regular” grade of orthodontic steel wire can be bent to almost
any desired shape without breaking
Passivation
• Chromium is added to stainless steel as passivating agent. It forms
a very thin, transparent, adherent layer of Cr2O3 which provides a
barrier to diffusion of oxygen thus preventing corrosion
Sensitisation
• When austenitic stainless steel is heated to between approximately
400 and 900*C, iron-chromium carbides precipitate along the grain
boundaries and chromium is depleted near the grain boundaries
below concentrations necessary for protection. Thus, the stainless
steel becomes susceptible to intergranular corrosion, and partial
disintegration of the weakened alloy may result. This phenomenon
is called sensitization.
Stabilization
• Elements such as titanium and tantalum, which preferentially form
carbides, can be added to the stainless steel to preserve the level of
chromium when the metal is exposed to elevated temperatures.
This process is called stabilization
 Heat Treatment
• Use of heating or cooling normally to extreme temperature to achieve a
desired result. The 2 types of heat treatment are
• Softening heat treatment or ANNEALING
• Hardening heat treatment or TEMPERING
•  A) Annealing : Effects associated with cold working ( e.g. strain hardening,
lowered ductility and distorted grains ) can be reversed by simple heating
the metal. This process is called annealing.
• The more severe the cold working, more rapidly the effects can be reversed
by annealing.
• Annealing in general comprises of three stages : 1)Recovery 2)
Recrystallization 3) Grain growth
• RECOVERY It is considered the stage at which the cold work properties
begin to disappear. There is slight decrease in tensile strength and no
change in ductility. STRESS RELEIF ANNEALING
• RECRYSTALLIZATION –
1. significant change in the microstructure.
2. Deformed grains replaced by new strain-free grains.
3. Original soft and ductile properties return.
4. Recrystallization occurs only if metal has been sufficiently cold
worked
• GRAIN GROWTH
• The recrystallized structure has a certain average grain size depending on the
number of nuclei. The more severe the cold working the greater the number of such
nuclei.
• Thus the grain size for the completely recrystallized material can range from fine to
fairly coarse. If fine grain structure is further annealed, grain growth occurs to
minimize the grain boundary area, with large grains consuming the small grains.
• The process continues till a course grain structure is produced.
 CORROSION OF STAINLESS STEEL
• Defined as destruction or deterioration of material by a chemical or
electrochemical reaction.
• Causes- If surface in-homogenesity is present it allows corrosion cells to
form in presence of saliva.
• Rust- It’s the formation of iron oxide when iron & steel alloy corrodes. It
may be brown, black or reddish in color. Can take form of pits and
blisters .
• Catastrophic corrosion- When stainless steel is sensitized as in brazing
or welding & then exposed to chemical agents then Cr depleted
boundaries are readily attacked by oxygen. This phenomenon is called
as catastrophic corrosion.
Types of Corrosion
• Wet corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion
• Stress corrosion

• Dry corrosion
Application in clinical practice
• Types 302 and 304 of 18-8 stainless austenitic wires are used in
Orthodontics.
• SS wires are mainly used for retraction and finishing and aligning
stages
• Stainless steel is also used in the manufacture of brackets, lingual
sheath, buttons, molar bands, hyrax screws, etc.
• SS wires are used in the fabrication of Removable appliances.
• Appliances such as Bite plane, tongue crib, Quad helix, etc are
fabricated using SS.
Application in alignment phase
• For the tooth alignment and leveling phase even steel wires with a
smaller cross-section result in high loads, which are not consistent
with physiological forces.
• Used by making loops that increase the wire’s activation range and
disguise, as it were, the low resilience and high stiffness of the wire.
• The disadvantage of using loops lies in the fact that as these loops
lose their original shape they change the direction of force vectors.
Loops can also hinder hygiene by entrapping food particles.
• If not positioned properly, loops can damage adjacent soft tissues.
• Stainless steel wires boast excellent resistance to corrosion and
exhibit higher elastic limits and modulus of elasticity.
• The advantage of using stainless steel arch wires at the start of
treatment, even with loops, lies in the fact that they allow greater
control over the arch wire shape while preventing undesirable
tooth expansions and projections. Besides, stainless steel arch
wires are extremely affordable
AUSTRALIAN ARCH WIRE 
• A J Wilcock of Australia came with a new wire called
Australian arch wire. It become famous because it
combines high resiliency with toughness
• Wilcock’s arch wire have been the mainstay of Begg’s technique.
• Due to high resiliency its diameter is reduced to 0.018 - 0.014 inch
Application –it is highly useful in deep over bite correction as it does
not undergo permanent deformation
• Carbon content is 10 times higher than standard value. This increased
carbon content creates rough , irregular and excessively porous
surface.
Types
• Regular-White Label ,
• Regular Plus-Green Label,
• Special-Black Label ,
• Special plus-Orange Label ,
• Extra Special Plus-Blue Label ,
• Premium-Purple Label ,
• Premium Plus-Orange Label ,
• Supreme-Yellow Label and
• Supreme Plus-Cream Label
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING
SPINNER STRAIGHTENING 
• Mechanical process of straightening resistant materials usually in
the cold drawn condition. the wire is pulled through high speed,
rotating bronze rollers that torsionally twist into straight condition.
• The resultant deformation and decreased yield stress value makes
it strain softened.
PULSE STRAIGHTENING
• The wire is pulsed in special machines the permit high tensile wires
to be straightened.
The advantages of Pulse Straightening
• –It permits highest tensile wire to be
straightened.
• –Tensile yield stress is not altered.
• –Smoother surface of wire hence less friction
• –Greater flexibility of springs fabricated.
• –Greater resiliency
• –Permits the usage of smaller diameter wire
resulting in a light continuous force with
minimal relaxation
Properties
• Australian SS is a Heat treated austenitic stainless steel wires
• More resilient
• Ultra high tensile austenitic steel arch wires.
• Zero stress relaxation ( allows the wire to maintain its force over a
longer period of time), yet resists permanent deformation from
elastic load
• Used in Begg light wire technique.
• Available in size ranging from 0.012” to 0.024”
• Regular & Regular plus: Easily formed and are excellent wires for general
use and utility wires
• Special ,Special Plus & Premium: Ideal for bite opening and arch shape
maintenance and also where high resilience is required
• Premium plus & supreme: Ideal for auxillaries like torquing springs ,mini
springs.
• Combination wire : the wire is a combination of two
diameters ,rectangular in the anteriors to maintain torque while the
round posteriors allow sliding mechanics
• Respond wires: Is a spiral wrap with a central core wire (coaxial) ,It can
deliver light ,initial forces while filling the arch wires slot for greater
control.
Heat treatment
• The low and medium grade wires exhibit better formability as they
are subjected to less work hardening and hence are more ductile.
The wires were straightened by spinner straightening. The wire is
pulled through high speed rotating bronze rollers which twist the
wire into a straightened condition.
• Presently the premium and supreme wires are straightened by a
process called pulse straightening .Though the exact procedure
remains a trade secret , it enables to straighten these high yield
strength wires , without structural deformation and thus not
altering the physical properties.
MULTI STRANDED OR BRAIDED WIRES
•  To increase the strength and to decrease the stiffness wire is
braided or twisted together by the manufacturer which increases
flexibility and can sustain large elastic deflection in bending.
• CO-AXIAL WIRE
• Has got a central core wire with 5 outer wires wrapped
around .
• It increases resiliency & flexibility
• It applies light continuous force.
• By using multi-stranded stainless steel arch wires one can employ
stainless steel arch wires in the initial stage of tooth alignment and
leveling without the need for loops.
• The elastic recovery of multi-stranded wires is 25% higher than
that of a conventional stainless steel wire of identical diameter.
• The rigidity of interbracket segments is much lower than that of
conventional stainless steel wires of identical diameter.
• Although less formable than conventional steel wires multi-
stranded wires are responsive to contours and bends, such as
omega loops for posterior tying, thus preventing tooth projection
Elgiloy
History
• Following World War II, returning servicemen complained that their
Elgin watches couldn't take the punishment of corrosive
environmental situations in various theatres of the war.
• The Elgin Watch Company took those complaints to heart, and
after four years of research, "Elgiloy", a non-corroding watch spring
material with an infinite life span, was born.
• Introduced into orthodontics because their properties are excellent
for orthodontic purposes
Co-Cr alloy Composition
• Co – 40%
• Cr – 20%
• Ni – 15%
• Fe – 15.8%
• Mo – 7%
• Mn – 2%
• C – 0.15%
• Be – 0.04%
Properties
• As with the stainless steel alloys, the corrosion resistance of Elgiloy
arises from a thin passivating chromium oxide layer on the wire
surface.
• Can be subjected to same welding and soldering procedures as for
stainless steel orthodontic wires.
Cobalt Chromium wires
• Available commercially as
1. Elgiloy (Rocky Mountain Orthodontics),
2. Azura (Ormco Corporation) and
3. Multiphase (American Orthodontics).
• Elgiloy is manufactured in four tempers.
1. Blue – soft.
2. Yellow – ductile.
3. Green –semi resilient
4. Red-resilient 
• Blue(soft) Softest –high formability. Recommended when
considerable bending soldering or welding is required. Heat
treatment increases its resistance to deformation.
• Yellow (Ductile) More resilient than blue Elgiloy. Good formability.
heat treatment increases its strength and spring performance.
• Green (Semi resilient) More resilient than yellow and can be shaped
with pliers before heat treatment.
• Red (Resilient) Most resilient , high spring qualities. Withstands only
minimal working. Fractures easily after heat treatment, all
adjustments should be made before this precipitation hardening
process.
Elgiloy Blue Wires
• Blue Elgiloy is very popular with many orthodontists as it can be
manipulated into desired shapes.
• Can be heat treated to achieve considerable increase in strength
and resilience.
• The other three tempers of Elgiloy have mechanical properties that
are similar to tempers that are available with less expensive
stainless steel wire alloys.
• These tempers, which are also responsive to heat treatment, are
not as popular for orthodontics as the Elgiloy Blue wires.
• Orthodontists can mistakenly believe that Elgiloy Blue wires have
substantially lower elastic force delivery than stainless steel wires.
In reality, the values of modulus of elasticity for the Elgiloy Blue and
stainless steel orthodontic wires are very similar.
• Other than the major differences in composition, the stainless steel
and Elgiloy Blue wire alloys have similar force delivery and joining
characteristics.
• The Elgiloy Blue wires contain a comparable amount of nickel to
that found in the stainless steel wires
• This material, however, had almost disappeared by the end of the
twentieth century because of its additional cost relative to stainless
steel and the extra step of heat treatment to obtain optimal
properties.
Soldering
• Stainless steel or Elgiloy components are often joined by silver
solders, which are alloys of silver, copper, and zinc to which elements
such as tin and indium may be added to lower the fusion temperature.
• Flux used for soldering stainless steel also contains a fluoride to
dissolve the passivating surface film formed by chromium. The solder
will not wet the metal when such a film is present.
• After the solder has flowed, the work should be immediately removed
from the heat source and quenched in water. The objective during
soldering is to use as little heat for as short a time as possible to avoid
sensitization.
Although intimate contact between
the two metals is seen at this
moderate magnification, research
indicates that no measurable
amount of atomic diffusion occurs
at the interface and that the bond is
strictly mechanical
Welding
• Flat structures such as bands and brackets are usually joined by spot
welding, which produces a large electrical current that is forced by the
electrode to flow through a limited area (spot) on the overlapped materials
that are to be welded.
• The interfacial resistance of the materials to the current flow produces
intense localized heating and fusion of the overlapped metals
• The grain structure of the surrounding wrought alloy should not be affected,
but stress exists at the interface of the cast and wrought structures, which
would be the most likely path of joint failure should fracture occur.
• The welded joint is susceptible to corrosion, primarily because of the loss of
passivation caused by sensitization and the localized stress at the interface
between the weld area and the surrounding wrought structure.
Conclusion
• Acquiring scientific knowledge of orthodontic wires enables
professionals to choose the best possible treatment protocol for
the patient. We see that there is no arch wire that meets all the
requirements of the orthodontist. We still have a long way to go, in
terms of finding the ‘ideal’ arch wire. But, with such rapid progress
being made in science and technology, It is sure that we will see
significant improvements in arch wires in the near future.