The Scientific Approach and

Alternative Approaches to
Investigation

CHAPTER 2
What is Meant by a Scientific
Research?
• Scientific research focuses on an organized,
systematic, data-based, critical, objective
inquiry into a specific problem that needs a
solution.
• It follows a step by step process.
• The findings are given with accuracy and
confidence.
• Scientific Approach applies to both applied and
basic research.
• Sometimes, following scientific approach
becomes challenging so researchers/managers
use hunches/guess to solve problems.
The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
• The Hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research may be listed as
follows:
1. Purposiveness 5. Precision
2. Rigor 6. Objectivity
3. Testability 7. Generalizability
4. Replicability 8. Parsimony
The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
We will explain each of these characteristics in
the context of
the following example:

Consider the case of a manager who is interested

in investigating how diversity can contribute to
the organizational effectiveness.
1. Purposiveness
• The manager has started the research with a
definite aim or purpose.
• The focus is on studying the role of diversity
in organizational effectiveness, as this will be
beneficial in many ways.
• A positive effect and proper utilization of
diverse workforce would add synergy, bring
blend of skills, and increased performance
levels, all of which would definitely benefit the
organization.
2. Rigor
• Rigor means carefulness, and the degree of
exactitude in research investigations.
• A good theoretical base and a sound
methodological design would add rigor to a
purposive study.
In the case of our example of studying the role
of diversity in organizational effectiveness :
• Let us say that the manager of an organization
asks 10 of its employees to indicate what would
make diversity to contribute in organizational
effectiveness.
• If the manager depends solely on the basis of
their responses reaches to several conclusions
on how diversity can contribute to organizational
effectiveness, the whole approach to the
investigation would be unscientific: sample size,
biasness/questions’ interpretation, failure to
include other important variables.
3. Testability - Hypotheses
• After taking random selection of employees of the
organization, and the study of previous research
done of the area of diversity in organizational
effectiveness, the researcher develops certain
hypotheses on how diversity can increase
effectiveness.
Scientific research tends itself to testing logically
developed hypotheses to see whether or not the
data supports the hypotheses that are developed.
Say, Hypothesis is: Diversity positively impacts
the organizational effectiveness
Then these hypotheses can be tested by applying
certain statistical tests to the data collected for the
purpose.
4. Replicability
• The results of the tests of hypotheses should be
supported again and again when the same type of
research is repeated in other similar
circumstances.
• If the results are repeated, we will gain
confidence in the scientific nature of our research.
5. Precision and Confidence
• Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to
reality - based on a sample.

• Precision reflects the degree of accuracy of the

results on the basis of the sample, to what really
exists in the universe.

• Confidence refers to the probability that our

estimations are correct.

• We would like to design the research in a manner

that ensures that our findings are as close to
reality as possible, so that we can place reliance or
confidence in the results.
Precision and Confidence
• In business research, we are not able to draw
“definitive” conclusions on the basis of the
results of the data analysis. The reasons are:
1. We have to base our findings on a sample
that we draw from the universe. The sample
may not reflect the exact characteristics of the
phenomenon we try to study.
2. Measurement errors and other problems are
bound to introduce an error in our findings.

Confidence Interval: Confidence Level and

Significance Level
6. Objectivity
• The conclusions drawn through the
interpretation of the results of data analysis
should be objective.
• The conclusions should be based on the facts of
the findings derived from actual data, and not on
our own subjective or emotional values.

The more objective the interpretation of the

data, the more scientific the research
investigation becomes.
7. Generalizability
• Generalizability refers to the scope of
applicability of the research findings in one
organizational setting to other settings.

The wider the range of applicability of the

solutions generated by research, the more useful
the research is to the users.
8. Parsimony
• Parsimony refers to simplicity in explaining the
phenomena or problems that occur, and in
generating solutions for the problems.
• Economy in research models is achieved when we
can build into our research framework a lesser
number of variables that would explain the
variance far more efficiently than a complex set of
variables that would only marginally add to the
variance explained.
Parsimony
• Parsimony can be introduced with a good
understanding of the problem and the important
factors that influence it.
• A good conceptual theoretical model can be
realized through interviews with the concerned
people, and a thorough literature review of the
previous research work in the particular problem
area.
The Hypothetico-Deductive Method
The seven steps involved in the hypothetico-
deductive method of research stem from the
building blocks discussed above and listed
below:

1. Identify a broad problem area

2. Define the problem statement
3. Develop hypotheses
4. Determine measures
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Interpretation of data
Identify a Broad Problem Area
If the manager notices a drop in sales,
incorrect accounting results, low-yielding
investment, disinterestedness of employees in
their work, and the like.
Any of these could attract the attention of the
manager to do a research project.
Problem Area: Drop in Sales
 Define the Problem Statement
• Scientific research starts with a definite aim or
purpose.
• A problem statement states the general objective
of the research.
Problem Statement: What should be done to
increase the sales?
 Develop Hypotheses
• Hypothesis is a conjecture/researcher’s logical
belief.
• The network of associations between the
problem and the variables that affect it is
identified.

• A scientific hypothesis must meet two

requirements:
1. The hypothesis must be testable
2. The hypothesis must be falsifiable (we can only
prove our hypotheses until they are
disproved).
 Determine Measures
• The variables in the theoretical framework
should be measurable in some way.
• Some variables can not be measured
quantitatively, such as unresponsive
employees, we need to operationalize these
variable.
 Data Collection
• Data with respect to each variable in the
hypothesis need to be obtained.

• There are two types of data:

- Quantitatative data
- Qualitative data
 Data Analysis
• In this step, the data gathered are statistically
analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were
generated have been supported.

• Analysis of both quantitative and qualitative

data can be done to determine if certain
relations are important.
 Interpretation of Data
• Now we must decide whether our hypotheses
are supported or not by interpreting the
meaning of the results or the data analysis.

• Based on these results, the researcher would

make recommendations in order to solve the
problem in hand.
Philosophical Underpinnings
All research is based on the researcher’s beliefs
about the world (truth) around us (the
philosophical study of what can be said to exist
is called ontology)

The disagreement about the nature of

knowledge or how we come to know (the
appropriate name for these matters is
epistemology)

Role of researcher’s value in research (Axiology)

Other Approaches to Research
Positivism

Positivists believe that there is an objective

truth out there

In a positivist view of the world, science and

scientific research is seen as the way to get at
the truth

For a positivist, the world operates by laws of

cause and effect that we can discern if we use a
scientific approach to research

They prefer cause and effect: Experimentation

Other Approaches to Research
Constructionism

The world (as we know it!) is fundamentally

mental or mentally constructed.

Constructionists believe that people construct

knowledge.

Constructionists are particularly interested in

how people’s views of the world result from
interactions with others and the context in
which they take place.

They prefer Qualitative approaches

Other Approaches to Research
Critical Realism

Critical realism is a combination of the belief in

an external reality (an objective truth) with the
rejection of the claim that this external reality
can be objectively measured; observations
(especially observations on phenomena that we
cannot observe and measure directly, such as
satisfaction, motivation, culture) will always be
subject to interpretation.

The critical realist also believes that researchers

are inherently biased.
Other Approaches to Research
Pragmatism

Pragmatists do not take on a particular position

on what makes good research. They feel that
research on both objective, observable
phenomena and subjective meanings can
produce useful knowledge, depending on the
research questions of the study.

It views the current truth as tentative and

changing over time. In other words, research
results should always be viewed as provisional
truths.