Session 5.

Conflict management

Session guide: Conflict management

Reading note: Conflict management

DATE

TIME

FORMAT Plenary participatory lecture

TRAINER

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this session, participants should be able to understand and appreciate:
1. Why conflicts arise in organizations.
2. Conditions leading to conflict.
3. Effects of conflicts.
4. Elements and stages in the conflict process.
5. Ways to deal with conflict situations: response styles and conflict resolution behaviour.
6. Strategies for managing conflicts.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Exhibit 1 Why conflicts arise

Exhibit 2 Conditions leading to conflict situations in organizations
Exhibit 3 Effects of conflict
Exhibit 4 Stages in the conflict process
Exhibit 5 Elements of a conflict
Exhibit 6 Theories of conflict management
Exhibit 7 Ways to deal with conflict situations
Exhibit 8 Response styles to conflict situations
Exhibit 9 Conflict-resolution behaviour
Exhibit 10 Strategies for managing a conflict
Exhibit 11 Common types of conflict in research organizations
Exhibit 12 Sources of conflict in a research organization

REQUIRED READING
Reading note: Conflict management

BACKGROUND READING
None.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AND AIDS

Overhead projector and chalkboard

Session guide: Conflict management

Ask participants: "What is a conflict?" "Why does it arise?" "How is it resolved?"

Encourage participants to share their experiences of different types of conflict in their

organizations. Some of these may have been resolved, while others would have remained
unresolved. What effects had these conflicts on the working of the organization? After a
brief discussion on these issues, observe that, as interdependence increases, conflicts are
bound to increase. There are several reasons for conflicts to arise. Some of these may be
difficult to identify.

Conflict is a 'clash of interests, values, actions, views or directions.' Show EXHIBIT 1 and
point out that disagreement among people is the underlying basis of conflict. People
disagree because they see things differently, want different things, have thinking styles
which encourage them to disagree, or are predisposed to disagree.

Conflict situations arise because of fear, force, fair or funds. Fear is an imaginary concern
for future. Force of any kind initiates and concludes conflicts. Fair is the sense of fairness,
which determines the moral values of an individual. Tangible as well as intangible costs
may provoke conflict, and also help towards its resolution. Interpersonal conflicts arise
because of differences in personality, perceptions, status and ideological and philosophical
outlooks. Other causes of conflict can be communication gaps; personality differences;
substandard performance; disputes over approaches, responsibility and authority; lack of
cooperation; or competition for limited resources.

Show EXHIBIT 2 and discuss the main conditions which influence an organization towards
conflict situations. Observe that very often these situations cannot be easily changed.

Show EXHIBIT 3 and discuss the effects of conflicts on an organization. Conflict situations
result in negative and positive effects. They may help diffuse more serious conflicts,
stimulate a search for new facts or resolution, increase group cohesion and performance,
and demonstrate the power or ability of the conflicting parties. Conflicts could hinder
smooth working or the decision making process, or create competing coalitions or reduce
productivity.

Show EXHIBIT 4 and discuss the various stages - from inception to end - through which a
conflict evolves.

Show EXHIBIT 5 and discuss elements of a conflict. Power, organizational demands and
worth are three important elements of conflict. Power is the capacity and means to make
people work. Organizational demands relate to job performance expectations. Worth is the
self-esteem of an individual.

Show EXHIBIT 6. There are two theories of conflict management. Traditional theory
considers people involved in conflict situations as trouble makers. Modern theory considers
conflict as a natural and inevitable outcome of human interaction. Conflict situations often
lead to the generation of new ideas and change.

From here on, the discussion should focus on conflict resolution. Show EXHIBIT 7. Fight,
negotiation, problem solving and design are four ways of dealing with a conflict situation.
Fight is not a healthy and positive approach. Negotiation is compromise, with a third party
playing an important role. Problem solving entails identifying causes of conflict and
removing them. The design approach uses conflict as a situation and attempts to resolve it
through creativity.

Responses to conflict situations vary. Show EXHIBIT 8 and discuss the three main
categories of response style. These are addressers, concealers or attackers. Addressers
take risks and try to resolve conflicts. Addressers may be 'first steppers' or 'confronters,'
depending upon the desire to resolve the conflict. Concealers conceal their feelings and do
not work towards resolution of conflicts. They may be 'feeling swallowers,' 'subject
changers' or 'avoiders.' Attackers attack either up-front or behind-the-back.

EXHIBIT 9 shows five different types of conflict handling behaviour: competing,

collaborating, compromising, avoiding and accommodating. Competing has high concern
for personal goals and low concern for relationships. Collaborating is the search for a
mutually satisfactory solution. It involves high cooperation and low confrontation.
Compromising is a mid-way solution, best suited to situations where the conflicting parties
are relatively equal in power and have mutually independent goals. Avoiding is delaying or
ignoring the conflict in the hope that over time the conflict situation will resolve itself.
Accommodating is a search for common ground. It involves high cooperation and low
confrontation.

Strategies for managing conflict include styles, improving organizational practices, special
roles and structure, and confrontation techniques. Show EXHIBIT 10 and discuss each of
these strategies. Show EXHIBIT 11 and discuss different types of conflicts in a research
organization. Conflicts may arise because of goal incompatibility, barriers to goal
achievement, competition for use of limited resources, inter-personal differences, project
priorities, or other causes related to research activities (EXHIBIT 12). The underlying cause
of most conflicts is lack of communication.

Before concluding the session, once again discuss conflicts in research organizations.
Observe that when scientists face conflict situations, they tend to assert themselves
through collaboration or competition. If assertion fails, they may attempt to compromise. If
that too fails, they may either accommodate or avoid.

In order to prevent undesirable group behaviour, the research manager needs to promote
organizational strategies such as establishing a committee of scientists that encourages
cooperation.

Managing conflict is a major responsibility of managers. To create a dynamic and healthy

environment in the organization, conducive to effective working, the research manager
should deal skilfully with conflict situations. This can only be done if she or he understands
the scientists fully, i.e., their problems, interests, limitations and the factors motivating
them.

EXHIBIT 1
WHY CONFLICTS ARISE

People differ, so they:

· see things differently

· want different things
· have different thinking styles, which prompts them to disagree
· are predisposed to disagree
· have different personalities
· have different status
· have ideological and philosophical differences
· have different goals
· have different approaches
· are influenced by fear, force, fairness or funds

EXHIBIT 2
CONDITIONS LEADING TO CONFLICT SITUATIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Ambiguous jurisdictions
Conflict of interest
Communication barriers
Dependence on one party
Differentiation in organization
Association of the parties
Behaviour regulation
Performance expectations
Competition for limited resources
Lack of cooperation
Unresolved prior conflicts

EXHIBIT 3
EFFECTS OF CONFLICTS

Positive effects:

· Diffuses more serious conflicts

· Stimulates a search for new facts or resolutions
· Increases group cohesion and performance
· Demonstrates measure of power or ability

Negative effects:

· Hinders smooth working

· Hampers the decision making process
· Causes the formation of competing coalitions
· Reduces productivity

Source: Filley, 1975.

EXHIBIT 4
STAGES IN THE CONFLICT PROCESS

Conflict situation
Awareness of the situation
Realization Manifestation of conflict
Resolution or suppression of conflict
After-effects of the conflict situation

EXHIBIT 5
ELEMENTS OF A CONFLICT

POWER
ORGANIZATIONAL DEMANDS
WORTH

EXHIBIT 6
THEORIES OF CONFLICT

Traditional theory

· conflicts are caused by trouble-makers

· conflicts are bad
· conflicts should be avoided or suppressed

Contemporary theory

· conflicts are inevitable between human beings

· conflicts are often beneficial
· conflicts are the natural result of change
· conflicts can and should be managed

Source: Kirchoff and Adams, 1982.

EXHIBIT 7
WAYS TO DEAL WITH CONFLICT SITUATIONS

FIGHT
NEGOTIATE
SOLVE THE PROBLEM
DESIGN

Source: De Bono, 1985.

EXHIBIT 8
RESPONSE STYLES IN CONFLICT SITUATIONS

Addressers

· First steppers
· Confronters

Concealers

· Feeling swallowers
· Subject changers
· Avoiders

Attackers

· Up-front
· Behind-the-back

Source: Turner and Weed, 1983.

EXHIBIT 9
CONFLICT-RESOLUTION BEHAVIOUR

COMPETING
COLLABORATING
COMPROMISING
AVOIDING
ACCOMMODATING

Source: Thomas and Kilman, 1974.

EXHIBIT 10
STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICTS

· Styles
· Improving organizational practices
· Special roles and structure
· Confrontation techniques

Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986.

EXHIBIT 11
COMMON TYPES OF CONFLICT IN RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS

Conflicts arise between:

· research and organizational goals
· research and administrative personnel
· scientists and management
· researchers and outside groups
· scientists (inter-personal)

EXHIBIT 12
SOURCES OF CONFLICT IN A RESEARCH ORGANIZATION

Conflicts arise over:

· Goals
· Project priorities
· Interdependence in work
· Administrative procedures
· Technical opinions
· Performance trade-offs
· Use of limited resources, including human resources
· Costs
· Schedules
· Personalities
· Goal incompatibility and barriers to goal accomplishment
· Strong barriers to communication
· Past history

Source: Ivancevich, Szilagyi and Wallace, 1977.

Reading note: Conflict management

Why conflicts arise

Conditions creating conflict situations
Conflict as a process
Effects of conflicts
Elements of a conflict
Theory of conflict management
Response styles
Dealing with conflict
Ways to resolve conflict
Conflict-resolution behaviour
Strategies for managing conflicts
Conflicts in research organizations
Summing up
References

Conflict is a clash of interests, values, actions, views or directions (De Bono, 1985).
Conflict refers to the existence of that clash. Conflict is initiated the instant clash occurs.
Generally, there are diverse interests and contrary views behind a conflict, which are
revealed when people look at a problem from their viewpoint alone. Conflict is an outcome
of organizational intricacies, interactions and disagreements. It can be settled by identifying
and neutralizing the etiological factors. Once conflict is concluded it can provoke a positive
change in the organization.

When we recognize the potential for conflict, we implicitly indicate that there is already a
conflict of direction, even though it may not have yet manifested itself as a clash.
Confliction is the process of setting up, promoting, encouraging or designing conflict. It is a
wilful process and refers to the real effort put into generating and instituting conflict.
Deconfliction is the annihilation of conflict. It does not refer to negotiation or bargaining, or
even to resolution of conflict: it is the effort required to eliminate the conflict.
Why conflicts arise

In most organizations, conflicts increase as employees assert their demands for an

increased share in organizational rewards, such as position, acknowledgment,
appreciation, monetary benefits and independence. Even management faces conflicts with
many forces from outside the organization, such as government, unions and other coercive
groups which may impose restrictions on managerial activities.

Conflicts emanate from more than one source, and so their true origin may be hard to
identify. Important initiators of conflict situations include:

(i) People disagree. People disagree for a number of reasons (De Bono,
1985).

(a) They see things differently because of differences in

understanding and viewpoint. Most of these differences are
usually not important. Personality differences or clashes in
emotional needs may cause conflicts. Conflicts arise when two
groups or individuals interacting in the same situation see the
situation differently because of different sets of settings,
information pertaining to the universe, awareness, background,
disposition, reason or outlook. In a particular mood, individuals
think and perceive in a certain manner. For example, the half-full
glass of one individual can be half-empty to another. Obviously
both individuals convey the same thing, but they do so differently
owing to contrasting perceptions and dispositions.

(b) People have different styles, principles, values, beliefs and

slogans which determine their choices and objectives. When
choices contradict, people want different things and that can
create conflict situations. For example, a risk-taking manager
would be in conflict with a risk-minimizing supervisor who believes
in firm control and a well-kept routine.

(c) People have different ideological and philosophical outlooks,

as in the case of different political parties. Their concepts,
objectives and ways of reacting to various situations are different.
This often creates conflicts among them.

(d) Conflict situations can arise because people have different

status. When people at higher levels in the organization feel
indignant about suggestions for change put forward from their
subordinates or associates, it provokes conflict. By tolerating and
allowing such suggestions, potential conflict can be prevented.

(e) People have different thinking styles, which encourages them

to disagree, leading to conflict situations. Certain thinking styles
may be useful for certain purposes, but ineffectual or even
perilous in other situations (De Bono, 1985).

(f) People are supposed to disagree under particular

circumstances, such as in sports. Here conflict is necessary, and
even pleasurable.

(ii) People are concerned with fear, force, fairness or funds (De Bono, 1985).

(a) Fear relates to imaginary concern about something which

might happen in the future. One may fear setbacks, disgrace,
reprisal or hindrances, which can lead to conflict situations.
 (b) Force is a necessary ingredient of any conflict situation. Force
may be ethical or emotional. It could be withdrawal of cooperation
or approval. These forces are instrumental in generating,
strengthening and terminating conflicts.

(c) Fairness refers to an individual's sense of what is right and

what is not right, a fundamental factor learnt in early childhood.
This sense of fairness determines the moral values of an
individual. People have different moral values and accordingly
appreciate a situation in different ways, creating conflict situations.

(d) Funds or costs can cause conflict, but can also force a
conclusion through acceptable to the conflicting parties. The cost
of being in conflict may be measurable (in money terms) or
immeasurable, being expressed in terms of human lives, suffering,
diversion of skilled labour, neglect or loss of morale and self
esteem. (De Bono, 1985).

Conditions creating conflict situations

According to Kirchoff and Adams (1982), there are four distinct conflict conditions, i.e., high
stress environments, ambiguous roles and responsibilities, multiple boss situations, and
prevalence of advanced technology.

Filley (1975) identified nine main conditions which could initiate conflict situations in an
organization. These are:

(i) Ambiguous jurisdiction, which occurs when two individuals have

responsibilities which are interdependent but whose work boundaries and role
definitions are not clearly specified.

(ii) Goal incompatibility and conflict of interest refer to accomplishment of

different but mutually conflicting goals by two individuals working together in an
organization. Obstructions in accomplishing goals and lack of clarity on how to
do a job may initiate conflicts. Barriers to goal accomplishment arise when goal
attainment by an individual or group is seen as preventing another party
achieving their goal.

(iii). Communication barriers, as difficulties in communicating can cause

misunderstanding, which can then create conflict situations.

(iv) Dependence on one party by another group or individual.

(v) Differentiation in organization, where, within an organization, sub-units are

made responsible for different, specialized tasks. This creates separation and
introduces differentiation. Conflict situations could arise when actions of sub-
units are not properly coordinated and integrated.

(vi) Association of the parties and specialization. When individuals specialized

in different areas work in a group, they may disagree amongst themselves
because they have different goals, views and methodologies owing to their
various backgrounds, training and experiences.

(vii) Behaviour regulation. Organizations have to have firm regulations for

individual behaviour to ensure protection and safety. Individuals may perceive
these regulations differently, which can cause conflict and negatively affect
output.

(viii) Unresolved prior conflicts which remain unsettled over time create anxiety
and stress, which can further intensify existing conflicts. A manager's most
 important function is to avoid potential harmful results of conflict by regulating
and directing it into areas beneficial for the organization.

Conflict as a process

Conflict is a dynamic process. In any organization a modest amount of conflict can be

useful in increasing organizational effectiveness. Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll (1986) consider
the stages involved in the conflict process, from inception to end, as sequential in nature,
namely:

(i) the conflict situation,

(ii) awareness of the situation,
(iii) realization,
(iv) manifestation of conflict,
(v) resolution or suppression of conflict, and
(vi) after-effects of a conflict situation.

Effects of conflicts

Conflict situations should be either resolved or used beneficially. Conflicts can have
positive or negative effects for the organization, depending upon the environment created
by the manager as she or he manages and regulates the conflict situation.

Positive effects of conflicts

Some of the positive effects of conflict situations are (Filley, 1975):

· Diffusion of more serious conflicts. Games can be used to moderate the

attitudes of people by providing a competitive situation which can liberate
tension in the conflicting parties, as well as having some entertainment value.
In organizations where members participate in decision making, disputes are
usually minor and not acute as the closeness of members moderates
belligerent and assertive behaviour into minor disagreements, which minimizes
the likelihood of major fights.

· Stimulation of a search for new facts or resolutions. When two parties who
respect each other face a conflict situation, the conflict resolution process may
help in clarifying the facts and stimulating a search for mutually acceptable
solutions.

· Increase in group cohesion and performance. When two or more parties are
in conflict, the performance and cohesion of each party is likely to improve. In
a conflict situation, an opponent's position is evaluated negatively, and group
allegiance is strongly reinforced, leading to increased group effort and
cohesion.

· Assessment of power or ability. In a conflict situation, the relative ability or

power of the parties involved can be identified and measured.

Negative effects of conflicts

Destructive effects of conflicts include:

· impediments to smooth working,

· diminishing output,
· obstructions in the decision making process, and
· formation of competing affiliations within the organization.

The overall result of such negative effects is to reduce employees' commitment to

organizational goals and organizational efficiency (Kirchoff and Adams, 1982).
Elements of a conflict

Organizational conflicts usually involve three elements, which have to be appropriately

matched through necessary organizational arrangements in order to resolve the conflict
(Turner and Weed, 1983).

· Power is the capacities and means that people have at their disposal to get
work done. Power includes budgetary discretion, personal influence,
information, time, space, staff size and dependence on others. If used
efficiently, power creates an atmosphere of cooperation, but can generate
conflicts when misused, withheld or amassed.

· Organizational demands are the people's expectations regarding a person's

job performance. Usually such expectations are high, and making them rather
unrealistic.

When these expectations are not fulfilled, people feel disheartened, angry, let down or
cheated. Consequently, conflict situations can arise.

· Worth refers to a person's self-esteem. People want to prove their worth in

the organization. Superiors control employees' pay, performance rating,
performance and appraisal, etc. How much of these are received by a person
reflects their worth. An individual may also feel loss of worth if some basic
needs are not fulfilled. Generally, conflicts arise from mismatches between
power, organizational demands and feelings of personal worth.

Theory of conflict management

Conflict is defined as disagreement between individuals. It can vary from a mild

disagreement to a win-or-lose, emotion-packed, confrontation (Kirchoff and Adams, 1982).
There are two theories of conflict management.

· The traditional theory is based on the assumption that conflicts are bad, are
caused by trouble makers, and should be subdued.

· Contemporary theory recognizes that conflicts between human beings are

unavoidable. They emerge as a natural result of change and can be beneficial
to the organization, if managed efficiently. Current theory (Kirchoff and Adams,
1982) considers innovation as a mechanism for bringing together various ideas
and viewpoints into a new and different fusion. An atmosphere of tension, and
hence conflict, is thus essential in any organization committed to developing or
working with new ideas.

Response styles

People may appreciate the same situation in different ways, and so respond differently. It is
therefore necessary to understand the response styles of the people involved so as to
manage conflicts properly. According to Turner and Weed (1983), responses can be
classified as follows:

· Addressers are the people who are willing to take initiatives and risk to
resolve conflicts by getting their opponents to agree with them on some issues.
Addressers can either be first-steppers or confronters:

- First-steppers are those who believe that some trust has to be

established to settle conflicts. They offer to make a gesture of
affability, agreeableness or sympathy with the other person's
views in exchange for a similar response.
 - Confronters think that things are so bad that they have nothing to
lose by a confrontation. They might be confronting because they
have authority and a safe position, which reduces their
vulnerability to any loss.

· Concealers take no risk and so say nothing. They conceal their views and
feelings. Concealers can be of three kinds:

- Feeling-swallowers swallow their feelings. They smile even if the

situation is causing them pain and distress. They behave thus
because they consider the approval of other people important and
feel that it would be dangerous to affront them by revealing their
true feelings.

- Subject-changers find the real issue too difficult to handle. They

change the topic by finding something on which there can be
some agreement with the conflicting party. This response style
usually does not solve the problem. Instead, it can create
problems for the people who use this and for the organization in
which such people are working.

- Avoiders often go out of their way to avoid conflicts.

· Attackers cannot keep their feelings to themselves. They are angry for one or another
reason, even though it may not be anyone's fault. They express their feelings by attacking
whatever they can even, though that may not be the cause of their distress. Attackers may
be up-front or behind-the-back:

- Up-front attackers are the angry people who attack openly, they make work
more pleasant for the person who is the target, since their attack usually
generates sympathy, support and agreement for the target.

- Behind-the-back attackers are difficult to handle because the target person is

not sure of the source of any criticism, nor even always sure that there is
criticism.

Dealing with conflict

Conflicts are inescapable in an organization. However, conflicts can be used as motivators

for healthy change. In today's environment, several factors create competition; they may be
differing departmental objectives, individual objectives, competition for use of resources or
differing viewpoints. These have to be integrated and exploited efficiently to achieve
organizational objectives.

A manager should be able to see emerging conflicts and take appropriate pre-emptive
action. The manager should understand the causes creating conflict, the outcome of
conflict, and various methods by which conflict can be managed in the organization. With
this understanding, the manager should evolve an approach for resolving conflicts before
their disruptive repercussions have an impact on productivity and creativity. Therefore, a
manager should possess special skills to react to conflict situations, and should create an
open climate for communication between conflicting parties.

Ways to resolve conflict

When two groups or individuals face a conflict situation, they can react in four ways (De
Bono, 1985). They can:

· Fight, which is not a beneficial, sound or gratifying approach to dealing with a

conflict situation, as it involves 'tactics, strategies, offensive and defensive
positions, losing and winning grounds, and exposure of weak points.' Fighting
 as a way of resolving a conflict can only be useful in courtroom situations,
where winning and losing becomes a by-product of the judicial process.

· Negotiate, towards a settlement with the other party. Negotiations take place
within the prevailing situation and do not involve problem solving or designing.
Third-party roles are very important in bringing the conflicting parties together
on some common ground for negotiations.

· Problem solve, which involves identifying and removing the cause of the
conflict so as to make the situation normal again. However, this may not be
easy. It is also possible that the situation may not become normal even after
removing the identified cause, because of its influence on the situation.

· Design, which is an attempt towards creativity in making the conflict situation

normal. It considers conflicts as situations rather than problems. Designing is
not confined to what is already there, but attempts to reach what might be
created given a proper understanding of the views and situations of the
conflicting parties. The proposed idea should be appropriate and acceptable to
the parties in conflict. A third party participates actively in the design process
rather than being just a an umpire.

Conflict-resolution behaviour

Depending on their intentions in a given situation, the behaviour of conflicting parties can
range from full cooperation to complete confrontation. Two intentions determining the type
of conflict-handling behaviour are assertion and cooperation: assertion refers to an attempt
to confront the other party; and cooperation refers to an attempt to find an agreeable
solution.

Depending upon the degree of each intention involved, there can be five types of conflict
handling behaviour (Thomas and Kilman, 1976). They are:

· Competition is a win-or-lose style of handling conflicts. It is asserting one's

one viewpoint at the potential expense of another. Competing or forcing has
high concern for personal goals and low concern for relationships. It is
appropriate in dealing with conflicts which have no disagreements. It is also
useful when unpopular but necessary decisions are to be made.

· Collaboration aims at finding some solution that can satisfy the conflicting
parties. It is based on a willingness to accept as valid the interests of the other
party whilst protecting one's own interests. Disagreement is addressed openly
and alternatives are discussed to arrive at the best solution. This method
therefore involves high cooperation and low confrontation. Collaboration is
applicable when both parties desire to solve the problem and are willing to
work together toward a mutually acceptable solution. Collaboration is the best
method of handling conflicts, as it strives to satisfy the needs of both parties. It
is integrative and has high concern for personal goals as well as relationship.

· Compromise is a common way of dealing with conflicts, particularly when the

conflicting parties have relatively equal power and mutually independent goals.
It is based on the belief that a middle route should be found to resolve the
conflict situation, with concern for personal goals as well as relationships. In
the process of compromise, there are gains and losses for each conflicting
party.

· Avoidance is based on the belief that conflict is evil, unwanted or boorish. It

should be delayed or ignored. Avoidance strategy has low cooperation and low
confrontation. It is useful either when conflicts are insignificant or when the
other party is unyielding because of rigid attitudes. By avoiding direct
confrontation, parties in conflict get time to cool down.
 · Accommodation involves high cooperation and low confrontation. It plays
down differences and stresses commonalities. Accommodating can be a good
strategy when one party accepts that it is wrong and has a lot to lose and little
to gain. Consequently, they are willing to accommodate the wishes of the other
party.

Strategies for managing conflicts

Tosi, Rizzo, and Carroll (1986) suggested four ways of managing conflicts, namely through:

· Styles. Conflict handling behaviour styles (such as competition, collaboration,

compromise, avoidance or accommodation) may be suitably encouraged,
depending upon the situation.

· Improving organizational practices. After identifying the reason for the conflict
situation, suitable organizational practices can be used to resolve conflicts,
including:

- establishing superordinate goals,

- reducing vagueness,
- minimizing authority- and domain-related disputes,
- improving policies, procedures and rules,
- re-apportioning existing resources or adding new,
- altering communications,
- movement of personnel, and
- changing reward systems.

· Special roles and structure. A manager has to

- initiate structural changes needed, including re-location or

merging of specialized units,
- shoulder liaison functions, and
- act as an integrator to resolve conflicts.

A person with problem-solving skills and respected by the conflicting parties can be
designated to de-fuse conflicts.

· Confrontation techniques. Confrontation techniques aim at finding a mutually

acceptable and enduring solution through collaboration and compromise. It is
done in the hope that conflicting parties are ready to face each other amicably,
and entails intercession, bargaining, negotiation, mediation, attribution and
application of the integrative decision method, which is a collaborative style
based on the premise that there is a solution which can be accepted by both
parties. It involves a process of defining the problem, searching for alternatives
and their evaluation, and deciding by consensus.

Conflicts in research organizations

Conflict in a research organization, and for that matter in any other organization, may be
between individuals, intra-group or inter-group, with conflict due to:

· research and organizational goals,

· research and administrative personnel,
· individual researchers,
· scientists and management, and
· researchers and client groups.

Such conflicts may arise for many reasons (Ivancevich, Szilagyi and Wallace, 1977):
 · Within a research group, differences arise over project priorities, the
sequence of activities and tasks.

· Administrative procedures and practices, which delay procurement of the

necessary inputs and supplies required for research activities. Such conflicts
get intensified because of the contradictory nature of personnel, dispersion of
authority, deficient communication, and varying perceptions.

· Technical opinions, performance norms and related issues lead to

disagreements. The more the uncertainty in any task, the greater is the need
for further information. If information is withheld or controlled by one of the
parties in an interacting group, suspicion is created and conflict generated.

· A very common cause of conflict in research organizations is competition

between interacting groups over use of limited resources available for scientific
work. Allocation of limited resources often generates conflict since one group is
likely to feel that it is not receiving a fair share of organizational resources in
comparison with other groups. Conflicts also arise over composition and
staffing of research teams, particularly when personnel from other areas are to
be included. Sometimes conflicts can arise over competing claims for use of
land for experiments.

· Cost estimates from support areas regarding work, breakdown, use of

structures, etc., can create conflict situations.

· A lengthy research process, where intermediate outputs of research are

difficult to measure, conflicts over anticipations regarding performance are not
uncommon. Disagreements over the timing, sequence and scheduling of
project-related tasks and overall management of research are usual in
research organizations.

· Disagreements over inter-personal issues caused by personality differences,

particularly when interacting groups are highly inter-dependent, can lead to
conflict situations. When one group fails to fulfil the expectations of the other
group, or acts improperly, a conflict situation may arise.

· Past record of conflicts between the interacting groups, such as departmental

rivalries.

Summing up

Conflicts are inevitable in any organization. A modest level of conflict can be useful in
generating better ideas and methods, inspiring concern and ingenuity, and stimulating the
emergence of long-suppressed problems.

Conflict management strategies should aim at keeping conflict at a level at which different
ideas and viewpoints are fully voiced but unproductive conflicts are deterred. Stimulation of
conflict situations is appropriate if the research manager identifies conditions of 'group-
think.' Group-think is a situation where conflict rarely occurs because of high group
cohesion, which results in poor decision and inadequate performance. Group-think prevails
when there are lot of 'yes men' in a group, with the result that there is no serious appraisal
of the situation and new ideas are not suggested. Group members attach greater
importance to popularity, tranquillity and peace in the group rather than to technical ability
and proficiency. Members are disinclined to verbalize their unbiased views in order to avoid
hurting the feelings of other members of the group. Decisions are accepted as they are,
adversely affecting organizational productivity. A manager can choose several remedies to
avoid group-think (Irving, 1971).

A conflict situation can be induced by supporting individualistic thinking or favouring

individual competition. Individualistic thinking can be initiated in the group by including
some group members who can freely express their views, which can encourage and prod
others to do the same. Competition between individuals can be enhanced by
acknowledging and rewarding the better performers. Conflict situations can also be
introduced by making some organizational changes, such as transferring some group
members, redefining roles, and helping the emergence of new leadership. A manager can
also create a conflict situation by delivering shocks, such as by reducing some existing
perks of the members of the organization. After stimulating the conflict situation, a manager
should:

· identify the likely source of the conflict situation,

· calibrate the productiveness of the situation, and
· neutralize the unproductive conflict situation.

Basic problems in inter-group behaviour are conflict of goals and communication failures, A
basic tactic in resolving conflicts, therefore, is to find goals upon which scientists or groups
can agree, and to ensure proper communication and interaction. Some conflicts arise
because of simple misconceptions, which can be overcome by improved communication.

A manager should manage conflicts effectively rather than suppress or avoid them. To
manage them, a manager needs to ask 'What?' and 'Why?' - and not 'Who?' - to get at the
root of a problem. In the process of resolving conflicts, many problems can be identified
and solved by removing obstacles and creating a new environment of individual growth. If
conflicts are not managed properly, they can be damaging, as they waste a lot of energy
and time, and invoke tension, which reduces the productivity and creativity of those
involved.

References

De Bono, E. 1985. Conflicts: A Better Way to Resolve Them. London: Harrap.

Filley, A.C. 1975. Interpersonal Conflict Resolution. Glenview IL: Scott, Foresman.

House, R.J., & Rizzo, J.R. 1972. Conflict and ambiguity as critical variables in a model of
organizational behaviour. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 7: 467-505.

Irving, J.L. 1971. Group think. Psychology Today, November.

Ivancevich, J.M., Szilagyi, A.D., Jr., & Wallace, M.J., Jr. 1977. Organizational Behavior and
Performance. California, CA: Goodyear Publishing.

Kirchoff, N., & Adams, J.R. 1982. Conflict Management for Project Managers. Drexel Hill:
Project Management Institute.

Thomas, K.W., & Kilman, R.H. 1974. Conflict Mode Instrument. Tuxedo, New York

NY: Xicom. Tosi, H.L., Rizzo, J.R., & Carroll, S.J. 1986. Organizational Behaviour. New
York,

NY: Pitman. Turner, S., & Weed, F. 1983. Conflict in Organizations. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall.