Module 12: WLAN Concepts: Switching, Routing and Wireless Essentials v7.0 (SRWE)

Module 12: WLAN Concepts
Switching, Routing and Wireless Essentials

v7.0 (SRWE)
Module Objectives
Module Title: WLAN Concepts
Module Objective: Explain how WLANs enable network connectivity .
Topic Title Topic Objective

Introduction to Wireless Describe WLAN technology and standards.
Components of WLANs Describe the components of a WLAN infrastructure.
WLAN Operation Explain how wireless technology enables WLAN operation.
CAPWAP Operation Explain how a WLC uses CAPWAP to manage multiple APs.
Channel Management Describe channel management in a WLAN.
WLAN Threats Describe threats to WLANs.
Secure WLANs Describe WLAN security mechanisms.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 2
12.1 Introduction to Wireless
Introduction to Wireless
Benefits of Wireless
• A Wireless LAN (WLAN) is a type of
wireless network that is commonly used
in homes, offices, and campus
environments.
• WLANs make mobility possible within
the home and business environments.
• Wireless infrastructures adapt to rapidly
changing needs and technologies.
Types of Wireless Networks
• Wireless Personal-Area Network (WPAN) – Low power and short-range (20-30ft
or 6-9 meters). Based on IEEE 802.15 standard and 2.4 GHz frequency. Bluetooth
and Zigbee are WPAN examples.
• Wireless LAN (WLAN) – Medium sized networks up to about 300 feet. Based on
IEEE 802.11 standard and 2.4 or 5.0 GHz frequency.
• Wireless MAN (WMAN) – Large geographic area such as city or district. Uses
specific licensed frequencies.
• Wireless WAN (WWAN) – Extensive geographic area for national or global
communication. Uses specific licensed frequencies.
Wireless Technologies
Bluetooth – IEEE WPAN standard used for
device pairing at up to 300ft (100m)
distance.
• Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) – Supports mesh
topology to large scale network devices.
• Bluetooth Basic Rate/Enhanced Rate
(BR/EDR) – Supports point-to-point topologies
and is optimized for audio streaming.
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for

Microwave Access) – Alternative
broadband wired internet connections.
IEEE 802.16 WLAN standard for up 30
miles (50 km).
Wireless Technologies (Cont.)
Cellular Broadband – Carry both voice and
data. Used by phones, automobiles, tablets,
and laptops.
• Global System of Mobile (GSM) –
Internationally recognized
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) –
Primarily used on the US.
Satellite Broadband – Uses directional

satellite dish aligned with satellite in
geostationary orbit. Needs clear line of site.
Typically used in rural locations where cable
and DSL are unavailable.
802.11 Standards
802.11 WLAN standards define how radio frequencies are used for wireless links.
IEEE Standard Radio Frequency Description
802.11 2.4 GHz Data rates up to 2 Mb/s

802.11a 5 GHz Data rates up to 54 Mb/s
Not interoperable with 802.11b or 802.11g
802.11b 2.4 GHz Data rates up to 11 Mb/s
Longer range than 802.11a and better able to penetrate building
structures
802.11g 2.4 GHz Data rates up to 54 Mb/s
Backward compatible with 802.11b
802.11n 2.4 and 5 GHz Data rates 150 – 600 Mb/s
Require multiple antennas with MIMO technology
802.11ac 5 GHz Data rates 450 Mb/s – 1.3 Gb/s
Supports up to eight antennas
802.11ax 2.4 and 5 GHz High-Efficiency Wireless (HEW)
Capable of using 1 GHz and 7 GHz frequencies
Radio Frequencies
All wireless devices operate in the range of the electromagnetic spectrum. WLAN
networks operate in the 2.4 and 5 GHz frequency bands.
• 2.4 GHz (UHF) – 802.11b/g/n/ax
• 5 GHz (SHF) – 802.11a/n/ac/ax
Wireless Standards Organizations
Standards ensure interoperability between devices that are made by different
manufacturers. Internationally, the three organizations influencing WLAN standards:
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU) – Regulates the allocation of
radio spectrum and satellite orbits.
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) – Specifies how a
radio frequency is modulated to carry information. Maintains the standards for
local and metropolitan area networks (MAN) with the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN family
of standards.
• Wi-Fi Alliance – Promotes the growth and acceptance of WLANs. It is an
association of vendors whose objective is to improve the interoperability of
products that are based on the 802.11 standard
12.2 WLAN Components
WLAN Components
Wireless NICs
To communicate wirelessly, laptops, tablets,

smart phones, and even the latest
automobiles include integrated wireless
NICs that incorporate a radio
transmitter/receiver.
If a device does not have an integrated
wireless NIC, then a USB wireless adapter
can be used.
WLAN Components
Wireless Home Router
A home user typically interconnects

wireless devices using a small, wireless
router.
Wireless routers serve as the following:
•Access point – To provide wires access
•Switch – To interconnect wired devices
•Router - To provide a default gateway to other

networks and the Internet
WLAN Components
Wireless Access Point
Wireless clients use their wireless NIC to

discover nearby access points (APs).
Clients then attempt to associate and
authenticate with an AP.
After being authenticated, wireless users
have access to network resources.
Cisco Meraki Go access points
WLAN Components
AP Categories
APs can be categorized as either
autonomous APs or controller-based APs.
• Autonomous APs – Standalone
devices configured through a command
line interface or GUI. Each autonomous
AP acts independently of the others and
is configured and managed manually by
an administrator.
• Controller-based APs – Also known as
lightweight APs (LAPs). Use Lightweight
Access Point Protocol (LWAPP) to
communicate with a LWAN controller
(WLC). Each LAP is automatically
configured and managed by the WLC.
WLAN Components
Wireless Antennas
Types of external antennas:

• Omnidirectional – Provide 360-degree
coverage. Ideal in houses and office areas.
• Directional – Focus the radio signal in a
specific direction. Examples are the Yagi
and parabolic dish.
• Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) –
Uses multiple antennas (Up to eight) to
increase bandwidth.
12.3 WLAN Operation
WLAN Operation
802.11 Wireless Topology Modes
Ad hoc mode - Used to connect clients

in peer-to-peer manner without an AP.
Infrastructure mode - Used to connect

clients to the network using an AP.
Tethering - Variation of the ad hoc

topology is when a smart phone or
tablet with cellular data access is
enabled to create a personal hotspot.
WLAN Operation
BSS and ESS
Infrastructure mode defines two

topology blocks:
Basic Service Set (BSS)
• Uses single AP to interconnect all
associated wireless clients.
• Clients in different BSSs cannot
communicate.
Extended Service Set (ESS)
• A union of two or more BSSs
interconnected by a wired distribution
system.
• Clients in each BSS can communication
through the ESS.
WLAN Operation
802.11 Frame Structure
The 802.11 frame format is similar to the Ethernet frame format, except that
it contains more fields.
WLAN Operation
CSMA/CA
WLANs are half-duplex and a client cannot “hear” while it is sending, making it
impossible to detect a collision.
WLANs use carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) to
determine how and when to send data. A wireless client does the following:
1. Listens to the channel to see if it is idle, i.e. no other traffic currently on the
channel.
2. Sends a ready to send (RTS) message the AP to request dedicated access to the
network.
3. Receives a clear to send (CTS) message from the AP granting access to send.
4. Waits a random amount of time before restarting the process if no CTS message
received.
5. Transmits the data.
6. Acknowledges all transmissions. If a wireless client does not receive an
acknowledgment, it assumes a collision occurred and restarts the process
WLAN Operation
Wireless Client and AP Association
For wireless devices to

communicate over a network, they
must first associate with an AP or
wireless router.
Wireless devices complete the
following three stage process:
• Discover a wireless AP
• Authenticate with the AP
• Associate with the AP
WLAN Operation
Wireless Client and AP Association (Cont.)
To achieve successful association, a wireless client and an AP must agree

on specific parameters:
• SSID – The client needs to know the name of the network to connect.
• Password – This is required for the client to authenticate to the AP.
• Network mode – The 802.11 standard in use.
• Security mode – The security parameter settings, i.e. WEP, WPA, or WPA2.
• Channel settings – The frequency bands in use.
WLAN Operation
Passive and Active Discover Mode
Wireless clients connect to the AP using a
passive or active scanning (probing)
process.
• Passive mode – AP openly
advertises its service by periodically Passive mode
sending broadcast beacon frames
containing the SSID, supported
standards, and security settings.
• Active mode – Wireless clients must
know the name of the SSID. The
wireless client initiates the process by
broadcasting a probe request frame
Active mode
on multiple channels.
12.4 CAPWAP Operation
CAPWAP Operation
Introduction to CAPWAP
• CAPWAP is an IEEE standard protocol that
enables a WLC to manage multiple APs and
WLANs.
• Based on LWAPP but adds additional
security with Datagram Transport Layer
Security (DLTS).
• Encapsulates and forwards WLAN client
traffic between an AP and a WLC over
tunnels using UDP ports 5246 and 5247.
• Operates over both IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4
uses IP protocol 17 and IPv6 uses IP
protocol 136.
CAPWAP Operation
Split MAC Architecture
The CAPWAP split MAC concept does all

the functions normally performed by AP MAC Functions WLC MAC Functions
individual APs and distributes them Beacons and probe Authentication
between two functional components: responses
Packet Association and re-
• AP MAC Functions
acknowledgements association of roaming
• WLC MAC Functions and retransmissions clients
Frame queueing and Frame translation to
packet prioritization other protocols
MAC layer data Termination of 802.11
encryption and traffic on a wired
decryption interface
CAPWAP Operation
DTLS Encryption
• DTLS provides security between the AP

and the WLC.
• It is enabled by default to secure the
CAPWAP control channel and encrypt
all management and control traffic
between AP and WLC.
• Data encryption is disabled by default
and requires a DTLS license to be
installed on the WLC before it can be
enabled on the AP.
CAPWAP Operation
Flex Connect APs
FlexConnect enables the configuration and control of Aps over a WAN link.
There are two modes of option for the FlexConnect AP:
• Connected mode – The WLC is reachable. The FlexConnect AP has CAPWAP connectivity
with the WLC through the CAPWAP tunnel. The WLC performs all CAPWAP functions.
• Standalone mode – The WLC is unreachable. The FlexConnect AP has lost CAPWAP
connectivity with the WLC. The FlexConnect AP can assume some of the WLC functions such
as switching client data traffic locally and performing client authentication locally.
12.5 Channel Management
Channel Management
Frequency Channel Saturation
If the demand for a specific wireless channel is too high, the channel may become
oversaturated, degrading the quality of the communication.
Channel saturation can be mitigated using techniques that use the channels more efficiently.
• Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) - A modulation technique designed to spread
a signal over a larger frequency band. Used by 802.11b devices to avoid interference from
other devices using the same 2.4 GHz frequency.
• Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) - Transmits radio signals by rapidly
switching a carrier signal among many frequency channels. Sender and receiver must be
synchronized to “know” which channel to jump to. Used by the original 802.11 standard.
• Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) - A subset of frequency division
multiplexing in which a single channel uses multiple sub-channels on adjacent
frequencies. OFDM is used by a number of communication systems including
802.11a/g/n/ac.
Channel Management
Channel Selection
• The 2.4 GHz band is subdivided into multiple channels each allotted 22 MHz bandwidth
and separated from the next channel by 5 MHz.
• A best practice for 802.11b/g/n WLANs requiring multiple APs is to use non-overlapping
channels such as 1, 6, and 11.
Channel Management
Channel Selection (Cont.)
• For the 5GHz standards 802.11a/n/ac, there are 24 channels. Each channel is
separated from the next channel by 20 MHz.
• Non-overlapping channels are 36, 48, and 60.
Channel Management
Plan a WLAN Deployment
The number of users supported by a
WLAN depends on the following:
• The geographical layout of the facility
• The number of bodies and devices
that can fit in a space
• The data rates users expect
• The use of non-overlapping channels
by multiple APs and transmit power
settings
When planning the location of APs, the
approximate circular coverage area is
important.
12.6 WLAN Threats
WLAN Threats
Wireless Security Overview
A WLAN is open to anyone within range of an AP and the appropriate credentials to
associate to it.
Attacks can be generated by outsiders, disgruntled employees, and even
unintentionally by employees. Wireless networks are specifically susceptible to
several threats, including the following:
• Interception of data
• Wireless intruders
• Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks
• Rogue APs
WLAN Threats
DoS Attacks
Wireless DoS attacks can be the result of the following:
• Improperly configured devices
• A malicious user intentionally interfering with the wireless communication
• Accidental interference
To minimize the risk of a DoS attack due to improperly configured devices and
malicious attacks, harden all devices, keep passwords secure, create backups, and
ensure that all configuration changes are incorporated off-hours.
WLAN Threats
Rogue Access Points
• A rogue AP is an AP or wireless router that has been connected to a corporate
network without explicit authorization and against corporate policy.
• Once connected, the rogue AP can be used by an attacker to capture MAC
addresses, capture data packets, gain access to network resources, or launch a
man-in-the-middle attack.
• A personal network hotspot could also be used as a rogue AP. For example, a user
with secure network access enables their authorized Windows host to become a
Wi-Fi AP.
• To prevent the installation of rogue APs, organizations must configure WLCs with
rogue AP policies and use monitoring software to actively monitor the radio
spectrum for unauthorized APs.
WLAN Threats
Man-in-the-Middle Attack
In a man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack, the hacker is positioned in between

two legitimate entities in order to read or modify the data that passes
between the two parties. A popular wireless MITM attack is called the “evil
twin AP” attack, where an attacker introduces a rogue AP and configures it
with the same SSID as a legitimate AP.
Defeating a MITM attack begins with identifying legitimate devices on the
WLAN. To do this, users must be authenticated. After all of the legitimate
devices are known, the network can be monitored for abnormal devices or
traffic.
12.7 Secure WLANs
Secure WLANs
SSID Cloaking and MAC Address Filtering
To address the threats of keeping wireless intruders out and protecting data, two early
security features were used and are still available on most routers and APs:
SSID Cloaking
• APs and some wireless routers allow the SSID beacon frame to be disabled.
Wireless clients must be manually configured with the SSID to connect to the
network.
MAC Address Filtering

• An administrator can manually permit or deny clients wireless access based on
their physical MAC hardware address. In the figure, the router is configured to
permit two MAC addresses. Devices with different MAC addresses will not be able
to join the 2.4GHz WLAN.
Secure WLANs
802.11 Original Authentication Methods
The best way to secure a wireless network is to use authentication and encryption
systems. Two types of authentication were introduced with the original 802.11
standard:
Open system authentication
• No password required. Typically used to provide free internet access in public
areas like cafes, airports, and hotels.
• Client is responsible for providing security such as through a VPN.
Shared key authentication
• Provides mechanisms, such as WEP, WPA, WPA2, and WPA3 to authenticate and
encrypt data between a wireless client and AP. However, the password must be
pre-shared between both parties to connect.
Secure WLANs
Shared Key Authentication Methods
There are currently four shared key authentication techniques available, as shown in
the table.
Authentication Method Description
Wired Equivalent Privacy The original 802.11 specification designed to secure the data using
(WEP) the Rivest Cipher 4 (RC4) encryption method with a static key.
WEP is no longer recommended and should never be used.
Wi-Fi Protected Access A Wi-Fi Alliance standard that uses WEP but secures the data with
(WPA) the much stronger Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP)
encryption algorithm. TKIP changes the key for each packet,
making it much more difficult to hack.
WPA2 It uses the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) for encryption.
AES is currently considered the strongest encryption protocol.
WPA3 This is the next generation of Wi-Fi security. All WPA3-enabled
devices use the latest security methods, disallow outdated legacy
protocols, and require the use of Protected Management Frames
(PMF).
Secure WLANs
Authenticating a Home User
Home routers typically have two choices for
authentication: WPA and WPA2, with WPA 2
having two authentication methods.
• Personal – Intended for home or small office
networks, users authenticate using a pre-
shared key (PSK). Wireless clients
authenticate with the wireless router using a
pre-shared password. No special
authentication server is required.
• Enterprise – Intended for enterprise
networks. Requires a Remote Authentication
Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) authentication
server. The device must be authenticated by
the RADIUS server and then users must
authenticate using 802.1X standard, which
uses the Extensible Authentication Protocol
(EAP) for authentication.
Secure WLANs
Encryption Methods
WPA and WPA2 include two encryption
protocols:
• Temporal Key Integrity Protocol
(TKIP) – Used by WPA and provides
support for legacy WLAN equipment.
Makes use of WEP but encrypts the
Layer 2 payload using TKIP.
• Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
– Used by WPA2 and uses the Counter
Cipher Mode with Block Chaining
Message Authentication Code Protocol
(CCMP) that allows destination hosts to
recognize if the encrypted and non-
encrypted bits have been altered.
Secure WLANs
Authentication in the Enterprise
Enterprise security mode choice requires
an Authentication, Authorization, and
Accounting (AAA) RADIUS server.
Three pieces of information are required:
• RADIUS server IP address – IP
address of the server.
• UDP port numbers –UDP ports 1812
for RADIUS Authentication, and 1813
for RADIUS Accounting, but can also
operate using UDP ports 1645 and
1646.
• Shared key – Used to authenticate
the AP with the RADIUS server. Note: User authentication and authorization is
handled by the 802.1X standard, which
provides a centralized, server-based
authentication of end users.
Secure WLANs
WPA 3
Because WPA2 is no longer considered secure, WPA3 is recommended when
available. WPA3 Includes four features:
• WPA3 – Personal : Thwarts brute force attacks by using Simultaneous
Authentication of Equals (SAE).
• WPA3 – Enterprise : Uses 802.1X/EAP authentication. However, it requires the
use of a 192-bit cryptographic suite and eliminates the mixing of security protocols
for previous 802.11 standards.
• Open Networks : Does not use any authentication. However, uses Opportunistic
Wireless Encryption (OWE) to encrypt all wireless traffic.
• IoT Onboarding : Uses Device Provisioning Protocol (DPP) to quickly onboard
IoT devices.
12.8 Module Practice and Quiz
Module Practice and Quiz
What did I learn in this module?
• A Wireless LANs (WLANs) are based on IEEE standards and can be classified into four main types:
WPAN, WLAN, WMAN, and WWAN.
• Wireless technology uses the unlicensed radio spectrum to send and receive data. Examples of this
technology are Bluetooth, WiMAX, Cellular Broadband, and Satellite Broadband.
• WLAN networks operate in the 2.4 GHz frequency band and the 5 GHz band.
• The three organizations influencing WLAN standards are the ITU-R, the IEEE, and the Wi-Fi Alliance.
• CAPWAP is an IEEE standard protocol that enables a WLC to manage multiple APs and WLANs.
• DTLS is a protocol provides security between the AP and the WLC.
• Wireless LAN devices have transmitters and receivers tuned to specific frequencies of radio waves to
communicate. Ranges are then split into smaller ranges called channels: DSSS, FHSS, and OFDM.
• The 802.11b/g/n standards operate in the 2.4 GHz to 2.5GHz spectrum. The 2.4 GHz band is subdivided
into multiple channels. Each channel is allotted 22 MHz bandwidth and is separated from the next channel
by 5 MHz.
• Wireless networks are susceptible to threats, including: data interception, wireless intruders, DoS attacks,
and rogue APs.
• To keep wireless intruders out and protect data, two early security features are still available on most
routers and APs: SSID cloaking and MAC address filtering.
• There are four shared key authentication techniques available: WEP, WPA, WPA2, and WPA3.
Module 12: WLAN Concepts
New Terms and Commands
• WPAN • Tethering
• WLAN • Basic Service Set (BSS)
• WMAN • Extended Service Set (ESS)
• WWAN • Control and Provisioning of Wireless Access Points
• Bluetooth (CAPWAP) protocol
• 802.11 • Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)
• Electromagnetic spectrum • FlexConnect
• ITU • Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
• IEEE • Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• Lightweight AP (LAP) • Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
• Lightweight Access Point Protocol (LWAPP) • Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
• Wireless LAN Controller (WLAC) • Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
• SSID • WPA2
• Autonomous AP • WPA3
• Controller-based AP • Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP)
• Omni directional antenna • Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
• Directional antenna
• MIMO antenna
• Ad hoc mode
• Infrastructure mode

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Module 12: WLAN Concepts

Switching, Routing and Wireless Essentials

Module Objective: Explain how WLANs enable network connectivity .

Topic Title Topic Objective

Components of WLANs Describe the components of a WLAN infrastructure.

WLAN Operation Explain how wireless technology enables WLAN operation.

Channel Management Describe channel management in a WLAN.

WLAN Threats Describe threats to WLANs.

Secure WLANs Describe WLAN security mechanisms.

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for

Satellite Broadband – Uses directional

802.11 2.4 GHz Data rates up to 2 Mb/s

To communicate wirelessly, laptops, tablets,

A home user typically interconnects

•Switch – To interconnect wired devices

•Router - To provide a default gateway to other

Wireless clients use their wireless NIC to

Cisco Meraki Go access points

Types of external antennas:

Ad hoc mode - Used to connect clients

Infrastructure mode - Used to connect

Tethering - Variation of the ad hoc

Infrastructure mode defines two

For wireless devices to

To achieve successful association, a wireless client and an AP must agree

The CAPWAP split MAC concept does all

• DTLS provides security between the AP

In a man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack, the hacker is positioned in between

MAC Address Filtering

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